Table 6 Summary of author’s regional... | Emerald Publishing

Table 6

Summary of author’s regional review of literature

S/N	Regional context	Factors affecting NPL	Studies
1	European countries	Bank concentration; interest rate on new loans; GDP growth; inflation; the size of debt	Zeqiraj et al. (2024), Ciukaj and Kil (2020), Staehr and Uusküla (2021)
2	Asian region	Unemployment rate; real interest rate; external debt to GDP ratio; inflation rate; GDP; sovereign debt; inflation rate; money supply; GDP growth; liquid assets to total assets ratio; loan growth; capital adequacy ratio; GDP government failure	Arham et al. (2020), Anita et al. (2022), Nor et al. (2021), Vithessonthi (2023), Hernawati et al. (2021), Giammanco et al. (2023)
3	African countries	Debt-to-GDP ratio; unemployment rate; regulatory quality; government effectiveness; liquidity ratio; capital adequacy ratio; inflation rate; bank quality; monetary policy; bank operations; bank competition; digital financial inclusion; gender; Basel III net stable funding ratio (NSFR) requirement; lagged NPL; lending rate; credit growth; cost income ratio; real interest rate	Ahiase et al. (2024), Msomi (2022), Asemota et al. (2023), Adu (2022), Adesina and Mwamba (2021), Olarewaju (2020), Chinoda and Kapingura (2023), Ali et al. (2023)
4	Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region	Corruption; government stability; financial inclusion; liquidity risk; bank performance; bank capital; bank size; global financial crisis; inflation rate; monetary policy rate	Hakimi et al. (2022, 2024), Mohamad and Jenkins (2021), Boussaada et al. (2022), Alaoui Mdaghri (2022), Mahrous et al. (2020)
5	Region of Americas, BRICS, G20 and G7 countries	Sustainable development; COVID-19 pandemic; return on equity; credit growth; credit costs; capital adequacy; GDP; EPU; country risks; non-oil real GDP growth rate; high inflation	Ozili (2024), DaSouza et al. (2023), Erdas and Ezanoglu (2022), Ozili (2022b), Saliba et al. (2023), Kumar et al. (2023)
6	Single country studies	Corporate governance; fintech inputs; COVID-19 pandemic; bank profits; bank size; economic growth; bank efficiency; profitability; capital adequacy; income diversification; credit growth; loan loss provisions; economic environment; financing conditions; inflation; unemployment; capital adequacy ratio; gross domestic product; public debt; unemployment rate; domestic credit; lending rate; real effective exchange rate	Tarchouna et al. (2022), Wang et al. (2023), Kryzanowski et al. (2023), Nguyen (2024), Trung (2024), Khan et al. (2020), Ahmed et al. (2021), Foglia (2022), Pancotto et al. (2024), Nathan et al. (2020), Ristić and Jemović (2021), Gamba-Santamaria et al. (2024), Žunić et al. (2021)
7	Cross-country and/or international NPL	central bank independence and transparency; fintech era; economic policy uncertainty; financial inclusion; shadow banking activity	Mamoon et al. (2025), Ozili (2022a), Karadima and Louri (2021), Ozili and Adamu (2021), Isayev and Farooq (2024), Kjosevski and Petkovski (2021), Ozili (2020), Kartika et al. (2022), Adusei and Adeleye (2022)

S/N	Regional context	Factors affecting NPL	Studies
1	European countries	Bank concentration; interest rate on new loans; GDP growth; inflation; the size of debt	Zeqiraj et al. (2024), Ciukaj and Kil (2020), Staehr and Uusküla (2021)
2	Asian region	Unemployment rate; real interest rate; external debt to GDP ratio; inflation rate; GDP; sovereign debt; inflation rate; money supply; GDP growth; liquid assets to total assets ratio; loan growth; capital adequacy ratio; GDP government failure	Arham et al. (2020), Anita et al. (2022), Nor et al. (2021), Vithessonthi (2023), Hernawati et al. (2021), Giammanco et al. (2023)
3	African countries	Debt-to-GDP ratio; unemployment rate; regulatory quality; government effectiveness; liquidity ratio; capital adequacy ratio; inflation rate; bank quality; monetary policy; bank operations; bank competition; digital financial inclusion; gender; Basel III net stable funding ratio (NSFR) requirement; lagged NPL; lending rate; credit growth; cost income ratio; real interest rate	Ahiase et al. (2024), Msomi (2022), Asemota et al. (2023), Adu (2022), Adesina and Mwamba (2021), Olarewaju (2020), Chinoda and Kapingura (2023), Ali et al. (2023)
4	Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region	Corruption; government stability; financial inclusion; liquidity risk; bank performance; bank capital; bank size; global financial crisis; inflation rate; monetary policy rate	Hakimi et al. (2022, 2024), Mohamad and Jenkins (2021), Boussaada et al. (2022), Alaoui Mdaghri (2022), Mahrous et al. (2020)
5	Region of Americas, BRICS, G20 and G7 countries	Sustainable development; COVID-19 pandemic; return on equity; credit growth; credit costs; capital adequacy; GDP; EPU; country risks; non-oil real GDP growth rate; high inflation	Ozili (2024), DaSouza et al. (2023), Erdas and Ezanoglu (2022), Ozili (2022b), Saliba et al. (2023), Kumar et al. (2023)
6	Single country studies	Corporate governance; fintech inputs; COVID-19 pandemic; bank profits; bank size; economic growth; bank efficiency; profitability; capital adequacy; income diversification; credit growth; loan loss provisions; economic environment; financing conditions; inflation; unemployment; capital adequacy ratio; gross domestic product; public debt; unemployment rate; domestic credit; lending rate; real effective exchange rate	Tarchouna et al. (2022), Wang et al. (2023), Kryzanowski et al. (2023), Nguyen (2024), Trung (2024), Khan et al. (2020), Ahmed et al. (2021), Foglia (2022), Pancotto et al. (2024), Nathan et al. (2020), Ristić and Jemović (2021), Gamba-Santamaria et al. (2024), Žunić et al. (2021)
7	Cross-country and/or international NPL	central bank independence and transparency; fintech era; economic policy uncertainty; financial inclusion; shadow banking activity	Mamoon et al. (2025), Ozili (2022a), Karadima and Louri (2021), Ozili and Adamu (2021), Isayev and Farooq (2024), Kjosevski and Petkovski (2021), Ozili (2020), Kartika et al. (2022), Adusei and Adeleye (2022)

Source(s): Summary of author’s regional review of literature