Table 3

Variable definition/measurement and descriptive statistics by survey year

VariablesDescription/measurementSource
NDVINormalized difference vegetation index: A score indicating the presence, density and health of vegetationLandsat 8 (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/)
GNDVIGreen normalized difference vegetation index: A score indicating the presence, density, greenness and health of vegetationLandsat 8 (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/
LSLADE_investmentLSLADE investment (Community-level weighted share of the total value of tractors, other equipment and agrochemicals under LSLADE measured in percentages)GLSS 7 (https://www2.statsghana.gov.gh/nada/index.php/catalog/97)
LSLADE_method_useLSLADE land preparation methods (1 if the household use LSLADE-provided tractors and agrochemicals during land preparation, 0 otherwise)Survey data
Gender_hhhGwnder of the household head, dummy (1 head is male, 0 otherwise)Survey data
Age_hhhAge of head (years)Survey data
Edu_hhhEducation of the head (Years spent in formal education by head)Survey data
HsizeHousehold size (Number of people residing in a household)Survey data
AssetIndex of household durable assets (e.g., TV, radio, etc.)Survey data
RemittancesDummy (1 received remittance, 0 otherwise)Survey data
GmembershipGroup membership, dummy (1 member of a social group; 0 otherwise)Survey data
TleadershipTraditional leadership, dummy (1 head holds traditional leadership position; 0 otherwise)Survey data
GleadershipGovernment leadership, dummy (1 head holds government leadership position; 0 otherwise)Survey data
FloodsDummy (1 community experiences flood; 0 otherwise)Survey data
DroughtDummy (1 community experiences droughts; 0 otherwise)Survey data
Plot_dist_mktPlot distance to the nearest market (in km)Survey data
GfertilityDummy (1 good soil fertility; 0 otherwise)Survey data
MfertilityDummy (1 moderate soil fertility; 0 otherwise)Survey data
PfertilityDummy (1 poor soil fertility; 0 otherwise)Survey data
DdepthDummy (1 deep soil depth; 0 otherwise)Survey data
MdepthDummy (1 moderate soil depth; 0 otherwise)Survey data
SdepthDummy (1 shallow soil depth; 0 otherwise)Survey data
FslopeDummy (1 flat slope plot; 0 otherwise)Survey data
MslopeDummy (1 moderate slope plot; 0 otherwise)Survey data
SslopeDummy (1 steep slope plot; 0 otherwise)Survey data
ElevationMeters above sea levelLandsat 8 (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/)
UrbanizationThe proportion of building footprint area per 250 square meters grid cellGRUMP (https://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/data/set/ghsl-population-built-up-estimates-degree-urban-smod)
AvgmaxtemperatureAverage minimum temperature (°C) 1960–2021WorldClim (https://www.worldclim.org/data/worldclim21.html)
AvgmintemperatureAverage maximum temperature (°C) 1960–2021WorldClim (https://www.worldclim.org/data/worldclim21.html)
AvgPPT12Average annual precipitation (mm) 1960–2021)WorldClim (https://www.worldclim.org/data/worldclim21.html)
Pop_densPersons per 250 meters grid cellCalculated with population from GRUMP (https://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/data/set/ghsl-population-built-up-estimates-degree-urban-smod) and GAEZ
Region11 if the household is in the Upper West Region, 0 otherwiseSurvey data
Region21 if the household is in the Northeast Region, 0 otherwiseSurvey data
Region31 if the household is in the Savannah Region, 0 otherwiseSurvey data
Region41 if the household is in the Upper East Region, 0 otherwiseSurvey data
Region51 if the household is in the Northern Region, 0 otherwiseSurvey data
LGDE_nselfProportion of farmer's peers in the community defined as n/(m_1), where n represents the number of farmer's peers who interact with such investors and m represents the total number of peers surveyed in that communitySurvey data

Note(s): In all estimations, Northern Region (i.e., Region5) is the reference category. For soil properties, Sslope, Sdepth and Pfertility are the reference categories for slope, depth and fertility of the soil, respectively

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