The alignment of objectives and...

The alignment of objectives and assessments. Have you ever taken a test and wondered, where the #&%@ did that question come from? Alignment between explicit objectives and criteria is fundamental to high-quality instruction (Berge, 2002; Dick, Carey, & Carey, 2005). If an objective states that students will be able to list key concepts, assessments should ask students to list key concepts. If an objective states that learners will be able to analyze a case, the assessment should ask learners to analyze a case. High-quality learning environments present learners with explicit and congruent learning objectives and assessment criteria. To establish world-class guidelines, consider specifying the alignment of learner assessments with objectives.

The alignment of objectives and instructional events. Research suggests that how we teach should be based on what we teach. The methods used to teach verbal information should differ from the methods used to teach a procedure that, in turn, should differ from the methods to teach complex problem solving, and so forth. Smith and Ragan (1999) classify alternative instructional events that have been found to facilitate achievement of various learning outcomes (Table 4).

TABLE 4

Grounded Events Related to Learning Outcomes

Learning Outcome	Grounded Event
Verbal information	Mneumonics and Metaphoric Devices Instructor or learner generated images Rehearsal Clustering and chunking into categories Expository and narrative structures Graphic and advanced organizers Write meaningful sentences Devise rule
Concepts	Inquiry and Expository Approaches Attribute Isolation Concept Trees Analogies, Mnemonics and Imagery
Rules	Determine if the procedure is required. List the steps in a procedure. Complete the steps in a procedure. Elaborate sequence Check appropriateness of completed procedure.
Problem solving	Presentation of the Problem Analyze Problem Space Apply Appropriate Principles Practice
Cognitive strategies	Discovery and Guided Discovery Observation Guided Participation Direct Instruction
Attitudes	Demonstrate desired behaviors Practice desired behaviors Provide reinforcement for the desired behavior Communicate persuasive messages from highly credible sources Create dissonance
Psychomotor skills	Massed versus Spaced Practice Whole versus Parts Practice Progressive parts practice Backwards chaining

Learning Outcome	Grounded Event
Verbal information	Mneumonics and Metaphoric Devices Instructor or learner generated images Rehearsal Clustering and chunking into categories Expository and narrative structures Graphic and advanced organizers Write meaningful sentences Devise rule
Concepts	Inquiry and Expository Approaches Attribute Isolation Concept Trees Analogies, Mnemonics and Imagery
Rules	Determine if the procedure is required. List the steps in a procedure. Complete the steps in a procedure. Elaborate sequence Check appropriateness of completed procedure.
Problem solving	Presentation of the Problem Analyze Problem Space Apply Appropriate Principles Practice
Cognitive strategies	Discovery and Guided Discovery Observation Guided Participation Direct Instruction
Attitudes	Demonstrate desired behaviors Practice desired behaviors Provide reinforcement for the desired behavior Communicate persuasive messages from highly credible sources Create dissonance
Psychomotor skills	Massed versus Spaced Practice Whole versus Parts Practice Progressive parts practice Backwards chaining

[ViewLarge]

High-quality learning environments present learners with instructional events based on targeted learning outcomes. To establish world-class guidelines, consider specifying the need to incorporate instructional events that are designed to facilitate the achievement of learning outcomes based on research and theory.

The nature of feedback. Feedback is vital to e-learning. At minimum, feedback is essential for closing message loops (Northrup & Rasmussen, 2000; Yacci, 2000), informing learners that communications are complete (Berge, 1999; Liaw & Huang, 2000; and Weller, 1988, as cited by Northrup, 2001). Feedback may also (a) increase response rates or accuracy, (b) reinforce correct responses to prior stimuli, and (c) change erroneous responses (Kulhavy & Wager, 1993). Feedback comes in two basic forms; confirmatory and corrective. Confirmatory feedback lets students know what they did correctly. Corrective feedback identifies areas and provides recommendations for improvement. Current guidelines recognize the importance of providing timely and appropriate feedback, but they do not detail the nature of the feedback. To develop world-class guidelines, consider delineating what is meant by timely and appropriate feedback based on research, theory, and documented best practices.

The design and sequencing of e-learning interactions. In traditional classroom settings, key interactions that affect learner attitudes and performance often occur spontaneously, in real-time. Good instructors interpret verbal and nonverbal cues, clarify expectations, facilitate activities, promote discussions, elaborate concepts, render guidance, and provide timely and appropriate feedback as they present content in a clear and engaging manner. Good instructors can also make up for flaws in design by utilizing their charisma to gain and sustain learners’ attention and their experience to shed light on complex or confusing content matter. During e-learning, opportunities to interact in “realtime” are relatively confined. Key interactions that occur spontaneously in traditional classroom environments must be planned and managed as an integral part of e-learning. Hirumi (2002a, 2002b) posits several grounded instructional strategies to guide the design and sequencing of e-learning (Table 5).

TABLE 5

Sample of Grounded Instructional Strategies

Nine Events of Instruction	Student-Center Learning	Jurisprudential Inquiry
Gain Attention Inform Learner of Objective(s) Stimulate Recall of Prior Knowledge Present Stimulus Materials Provide Learning Guidance Elicit Performance Provide Feedback Assess Performance Enhance Retention and Transfer	Set Learning Challenge Negotiate Learning Goals and Objectives Negotiate Learning Strategy Construct Knowledge Negotiate Performance Criteria Assess Learning Provide Feedback (Steps 1-6) Communicate Results	Orientation to the Case Identifying the Issues Taking Positions Exploring the Stance(s), Patters of Argumentation Refining and Qualifying the Positions Testing Factual Assumptions Behind Qualified Positions
Simulation Model	Direct Instruction	Experiential Learning
Orientation Present topic of simulation Explain simulation Give overview Participant Training Set-up scenario Assign roles Hold abbreviated practice Simulation Operations Conduct activity Feedback and evaluation Clarify misconceptions Continue simulation Participant Debriefing Summarize events Summarize difficulties Analyze process Compare to the real world Appraise and redesign the simulation	Orientation Establish lesson content Review previous learning Establish lesson objectives Establish lesson procedures Presentation Explain new concept or skill Provide visual representation Check for understanding Structured Practice Lead group through practice Students respond Provide corrective feedback Guided Practice Practice semi-independently Circulate, monitor practice Provide feedback Independent Practice Practice independently Provide delayed feedback	Experience—bImmerse learner in “authentic” experience. Publish—Talking or writing about experience. Sharing thoughts and feelings. Process—Debrief: Interpret published information, defining patterns, discrepancies and overall dynamics. Internalize—Private process, learner reflects on lessons learned and requirements for future learning. Generalize—Develop hypotheses, form generalizations and reach conclusions. Apply—Use information and knowledge gained from lesson to make decisions and solve problems.
Inquiry Learning	Inductive Thinking	Problem-Based Learning
Confrontation with the Problem Explain inquiry procedures Present discrepant event Data Gathering—Verification Verify nature of objects and conditions Verify the occurrence of the problem situation Data Gathering—Experimentation Isolate relevant variables Hypothesize and test casual relationships Organizing, Formulating and Explanation—Formulate rules or explanations Analysis of inquiry process—Analyze inquiry strategy and develop more effective ones.	Concept Formation Enumeration and listing Grouping Labeling, Categorizing Interpretation of Data Identify critical relationships Explore relationships Make inferences Application of Principles Predicting consequences Explaining predictions Verifying predictions	Starting a New Problem Set problem Describe requirements Assign tasks Reason through the problem Commitment to outcome Shape issues and assignment Identify resource Schedule follow-up Problem Follow-Up Resources used Reassess the problem Performance Presentation(s) After Conclusion of Problem Knowledge abstraction and summary Self-evaluation

Nine Events of Instruction	Student-Center Learning	Jurisprudential Inquiry
Gain Attention Inform Learner of Objective(s) Stimulate Recall of Prior Knowledge Present Stimulus Materials Provide Learning Guidance Elicit Performance Provide Feedback Assess Performance Enhance Retention and Transfer	Set Learning Challenge Negotiate Learning Goals and Objectives Negotiate Learning Strategy Construct Knowledge Negotiate Performance Criteria Assess Learning Provide Feedback (Steps 1-6) Communicate Results	Orientation to the Case Identifying the Issues Taking Positions Exploring the Stance(s), Patters of Argumentation Refining and Qualifying the Positions Testing Factual Assumptions Behind Qualified Positions
Simulation Model	Direct Instruction	Experiential Learning
Orientation Present topic of simulation Explain simulation Give overview Participant Training Set-up scenario Assign roles Hold abbreviated practice Simulation Operations Conduct activity Feedback and evaluation Clarify misconceptions Continue simulation Participant Debriefing Summarize events Summarize difficulties Analyze process Compare to the real world Appraise and redesign the simulation	Orientation Establish lesson content Review previous learning Establish lesson objectives Establish lesson procedures Presentation Explain new concept or skill Provide visual representation Check for understanding Structured Practice Lead group through practice Students respond Provide corrective feedback Guided Practice Practice semi-independently Circulate, monitor practice Provide feedback Independent Practice Practice independently Provide delayed feedback	Experience—bImmerse learner in “authentic” experience. Publish—Talking or writing about experience. Sharing thoughts and feelings. Process—Debrief: Interpret published information, defining patterns, discrepancies and overall dynamics. Internalize—Private process, learner reflects on lessons learned and requirements for future learning. Generalize—Develop hypotheses, form generalizations and reach conclusions. Apply—Use information and knowledge gained from lesson to make decisions and solve problems.
Inquiry Learning	Inductive Thinking	Problem-Based Learning
Confrontation with the Problem Explain inquiry procedures Present discrepant event Data Gathering—Verification Verify nature of objects and conditions Verify the occurrence of the problem situation Data Gathering—Experimentation Isolate relevant variables Hypothesize and test casual relationships Organizing, Formulating and Explanation—Formulate rules or explanations Analysis of inquiry process—Analyze inquiry strategy and develop more effective ones.	Concept Formation Enumeration and listing Grouping Labeling, Categorizing Interpretation of Data Identify critical relationships Explore relationships Make inferences Application of Principles Predicting consequences Explaining predictions Verifying predictions	Starting a New Problem Set problem Describe requirements Assign tasks Reason through the problem Commitment to outcome Shape issues and assignment Identify resource Schedule follow-up Problem Follow-Up Resources used Reassess the problem Performance Presentation(s) After Conclusion of Problem Knowledge abstraction and summary Self-evaluation

[ViewLarge]

To establish world-class standards, consider specifying the need to design and sequence e-learning interactions based on grounded instructional strategies.

Motivational design. Educators recognize that motivation is essential to student learning. Students must be presented with the appropriate skills and knowledge and they must be motivated to learn and use them. Even though there are numerous theories of human motivation, published guidelines do not address motivational factors, at least not with the precision they attend to concept acquisition. Keller (1987a, 1987b) presents a systematic process for designing motivationally effective instruction that subsumes related theories. In short, Keller’s ARCS model suggests that, to motivate students to learn, instruction must (a) gain and sustain learners’ Attention, (b) be Relevant to learners’ needs and interest, (c) promote learners’ Confidence in their ability to succeed, and (d) ensure that learners are Satisfied that their efforts were worthwhile. Table 6 depicts some of the tactics educators can apply to meet motivational quality guidelines.

TABLE 6

Tactics for Motivating Students to Learn

Motivational Constructs	Motivational Design Tactics
Attention	Perceptual Arousal—Stimulate senses Inquiry Arousal—Stimulate curiosity Variability—Vary stimulus
Relevance	Goal Orientation—Help students create and achieve goals Motive Matching—Address specific needs Familiarity—Relate to learners’ past experiences
Confidence	Requirements—Awareness of expectations and evaluation criteria Success Opportunities—Opportunities to experience success Personal Control—Link success or failure to student effort and abilities
Satisfaction	Natural Consequences—Meaningful opportunities to apply skills Positive Consequences—Positive reinforcement Equity—Consequences perceived to be fair by all students

Motivational Constructs	Motivational Design Tactics
Attention	Perceptual Arousal—Stimulate senses Inquiry Arousal—Stimulate curiosity Variability—Vary stimulus
Relevance	Goal Orientation—Help students create and achieve goals Motive Matching—Address specific needs Familiarity—Relate to learners’ past experiences
Confidence	Requirements—Awareness of expectations and evaluation criteria Success Opportunities—Opportunities to experience success Personal Control—Link success or failure to student effort and abilities
Satisfaction	Natural Consequences—Meaningful opportunities to apply skills Positive Consequences—Positive reinforcement Equity—Consequences perceived to be fair by all students

[ViewLarge]

To define world-class guidelines, consider learner motivation, using insights derived from research on instructional design (such as the ARCS model) to guide the development of related standards.

Gift article access

Gift article access

Gift article access

Gift article access

Sharing Unavailable