Table 1

Taxonomy of Feedback

CategoryTypeDefinition
CognitiveStagingMessages that prepare students for assignments, including future assignments.
CorrectingMessages that correct mistakes students make in their writing.
CitingMessages that guide students to use citation styles properly.
DemonstratingMessages that point and show details in a graphic, movement, step, or process.
Connecting/ clarifyingMessages that refer students back to assignment prompts, rubrics, and course requirements.
RationalizingMessages that explain to students why they get certain grades for the assignment.
SuggestingMessages that offer suggestions for change for the present as well as future work.
ReflectingMessages that reflect on student’s strengths and weaknesses in an assignment.
DirectingMessages that offer direction to students for future work or growth.
AffectiveAffirmingMessages that affirm what students have done right.
CheerleadingMessages that offer general encouragement for work that is well done.
DiscipliningMessages that offer information about student violation of rules, including academic cheating.
Macro feedbackBehavior modificationMessages that offer general suggestions about behaviors that should be modified (such as consistent idiosyncrasies in acting that persist throughout courses).
Course progressMessages about where the students stand in the course and what could be done to make greater progress.
Academic progressMessages about where the students stand in the degree program and what could be done to make greater progress.
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