Table 3 Drivers of offshoring and...

Table 3

Drivers of offshoring and backshoring

	2010–2015		2020–2022
	Offshoring	Backshoring	Offshoring	Backshoring
Lead time	2.80^a,g	3.49^a,i	3.41^d,g	4.18^d,i
Flexibility	2.75^a	3.57^a	2.91^c	3.94^c
Market proximity	2.76	2.84^h	2.81^d	3.71^d,h
Logistics cost	2.83	3.02ⁱ	2.88^e	3.65^e,i
Quality	2.80^a	3.72^a	3.13	3.61
Access to skills, knowledge	2.64^a	3.56^a	3.14	3.55
Access to technology	2.50^a	3.40^a	2.64	3.22
Proximity to R&D	1.99^a	3.17^a	2.05^c	3.16^c
Risk	2.47	2.61^j	2.70	3.13^j
Exchange rates	2.29^g	2.36^h	2.75^g	3.03^h
Time-to-market	2.10^a	2.56^a	2.43	2.93
Access to raw materials	2.43	2.56	2.52	2.88
Focus on core areas	2.88^g	2.96	2.20^g	2.81
Country-specific conditions	2.48^b	2.09^b,j	2.05	2.66^j
Avoid investments	2.80	2.57	2.77	2.48
Labor cost	3.80^a	2.33^a	3.59^c	2.47^c
Lack of qualified personnel	1.85^f	2.09	2.55^f	2.45
Trade barriers	2.32^b	1.99^b	2.26	2.41
Follow industry practice	1.96	1.92	2.20	2.31
Customer requirement	1.98	1.96	2.28	2.28

	2010–2015		2020–2022
	Offshoring	Backshoring	Offshoring	Backshoring
Lead time	2.80^a,g	3.49^a,i	3.41^d,g	4.18^d,i
Flexibility	2.75^a	3.57^a	2.91^c	3.94^c
Market proximity	2.76	2.84^h	2.81^d	3.71^d,h
Logistics cost	2.83	3.02ⁱ	2.88^e	3.65^e,i
Quality	2.80^a	3.72^a	3.13	3.61
Access to skills, knowledge	2.64^a	3.56^a	3.14	3.55
Access to technology	2.50^a	3.40^a	2.64	3.22
Proximity to R&D	1.99^a	3.17^a	2.05^c	3.16^c
Risk	2.47	2.61^j	2.70	3.13^j
Exchange rates	2.29^g	2.36^h	2.75^g	3.03^h
Time-to-market	2.10^a	2.56^a	2.43	2.93
Access to raw materials	2.43	2.56	2.52	2.88
Focus on core areas	2.88^g	2.96	2.20^g	2.81
Country-specific conditions	2.48^b	2.09^b,j	2.05	2.66^j
Avoid investments	2.80	2.57	2.77	2.48
Labor cost	3.80^a	2.33^a	3.59^c	2.47^c
Lack of qualified personnel	1.85^f	2.09	2.55^f	2.45
Trade barriers	2.32^b	1.99^b	2.26	2.41
Follow industry practice	1.96	1.92	2.20	2.31
Customer requirement	1.98	1.96	2.28	2.28

Note(s): Column maximum in italic

^{a, b}Difference between off- and backshoring in 2010–2015 is significant at the 0.001 and 0.05 level, respectively

^{c, d, e}Difference between off- and backshoring in 2020–2022 is significant at the 0.001, 0.01, and 0.05 level, respectively

^{f, g}Difference between offshoring in 2010–2015 and 2020–2022 is significant at the 0.01 and 0.05 level, respectively

^{h, i, j}Difference between backshoring in 2010–2015 and 2020–2022 is significant at the 0.001, 0.01, and 0.05 level, respectively

Source(s): Authors’ own elaboration