Remittances, governance and urban access to electricity
| CORR | POL | RQ | VA | RL | GE | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UPAE | UPAE | UPAE | UPAE | UPAE | UPAE | UPAE | |
| UPAE (−1) | 0.344*** (0.0491) | 0.363*** (0.0658) | 0.194*** (0.0708) | 0.321*** (0.0663) | 0.341*** (0.0731) | 0.294*** (0.0546) | 0.325*** (0.0507) |
| GDP | −5.698*** (1.200) | −3.946*** (1.085) | −7.601*** (1.511) | −6.318*** (1.315) | −6.965*** (1.258) | −6.772*** (1.393) | −5.908*** (1.281) |
| FPI | 0.205*** (0.0171) | 0.216*** (0.0228) | 0.129*** (0.0278) | 0.203*** (0.0207) | 0.210*** (0.0207) | 0.147*** (0.0288) | 0.202*** (0.0208) |
| DCPS | 0.288*** (0.0595) | 0.254*** (0.0532) | 0.543*** (0.0726) | 0.309*** (0.0868) | 0.402*** (0.0701) | 0.387*** (0.0736) | 0.277*** (0.0770) |
| ICT | 0.103*** (0.0225) | 0.115*** (0.0300) | 0.0574** (0.0231) | 0.101*** (0.0243) | 0.0929*** (0.0211) | 0.0659*** (0.0219) | 0.106*** (0.0240) |
| GDS | 1.079*** (0.155) | 1.085*** (0.168) | 1.245*** (0.176) | 1.066*** (0.227) | 1.187*** (0.176) | 1.140*** (0.234) | 1.105*** (0.164) |
| RMIT | 0.872*** (0.288) | 1.311*** (0.381) | 1.781*** (0.307) | 0.238 (0.474) | 0.816*** (0.291) | 0.475 (0.335) | 0.878* (0.473) |
| CORR | −7.446*** (1.809) | ||||||
| REMIT*CORR | 1.174* (0.628) | ||||||
| POL | 10.85*** (2.245) | ||||||
| REMIT*POL | −3.300*** (0.575) | ||||||
| RQ | 4.668** (2.176) | ||||||
| RMIT*RQ | 4.668** (2.176) | ||||||
| VA | 2.628 (3.058) | ||||||
| REMIT*VA | −1.691*** (0.568) | ||||||
| RL | 11.76*** (2.331) | ||||||
| REMIT*RL | −2.538*** (0.555) | ||||||
| GE | 1.558 (2.746) | ||||||
| REMIT*GE | −0.0782 (0.792) | ||||||
| Net effect | NSA | PS | 3.30 (TCP) | NA | 1.76 (TCP) | NA | NA |
| Constant | 38.90*** (6.428) | 21.06*** (7.559) | 56.71*** (9.409) | 46.43*** (7.859) | 41.89*** (9.841) | 54.97*** (8.385) | 42.21*** (7.667) |
| Year dummy | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Observations | 240 | 240 | 240 | 240 | 240 | 240 | 240 |
| Number of country | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 |
| No. of instruments | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 |
| F-statistics | 18827.25 | 3541.10 | 18663.50 | 9638.12 | 8617.12 | 12010.61 | 9948.25 |
| AR (1) | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| AR (2) | 0.381 | 0.266 | 0.450 | 0.536 | 0.348 | 0.389 | 0.385 |
| Hansen p-value | 0.422 | 0.455 | 0.601 | 0.305 | 0.391 | 0.501 | 0.306 |
| CORR | POL | RQ | VA | RL | GE | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UPAE | UPAE | UPAE | UPAE | UPAE | UPAE | UPAE | |
| UPAE (−1) | 0.344*** (0.0491) | 0.363*** (0.0658) | 0.194*** (0.0708) | 0.321*** (0.0663) | 0.341*** (0.0731) | 0.294*** (0.0546) | 0.325*** (0.0507) |
| GDP | −5.698*** (1.200) | −3.946*** (1.085) | −7.601*** (1.511) | −6.318*** (1.315) | −6.965*** (1.258) | −6.772*** (1.393) | −5.908*** (1.281) |
| FPI | 0.205*** (0.0171) | 0.216*** (0.0228) | 0.129*** (0.0278) | 0.203*** (0.0207) | 0.210*** (0.0207) | 0.147*** (0.0288) | 0.202*** (0.0208) |
| DCPS | 0.288*** (0.0595) | 0.254*** (0.0532) | 0.543*** (0.0726) | 0.309*** (0.0868) | 0.402*** (0.0701) | 0.387*** (0.0736) | 0.277*** (0.0770) |
| ICT | 0.103*** (0.0225) | 0.115*** (0.0300) | 0.0574** (0.0231) | 0.101*** (0.0243) | 0.0929*** (0.0211) | 0.0659*** (0.0219) | 0.106*** (0.0240) |
| GDS | 1.079*** (0.155) | 1.085*** (0.168) | 1.245*** (0.176) | 1.066*** (0.227) | 1.187*** (0.176) | 1.140*** (0.234) | 1.105*** (0.164) |
| RMIT | 0.872*** (0.288) | 1.311*** (0.381) | 1.781*** (0.307) | 0.238 (0.474) | 0.816*** (0.291) | 0.475 (0.335) | 0.878* (0.473) |
| CORR | −7.446*** (1.809) | ||||||
| REMIT*CORR | 1.174* (0.628) | ||||||
| POL | 10.85*** (2.245) | ||||||
| REMIT*POL | −3.300*** (0.575) | ||||||
| RQ | 4.668** (2.176) | ||||||
| RMIT*RQ | 4.668** (2.176) | ||||||
| VA | 2.628 (3.058) | ||||||
| REMIT*VA | −1.691*** (0.568) | ||||||
| RL | 11.76*** (2.331) | ||||||
| REMIT*RL | −2.538*** (0.555) | ||||||
| GE | 1.558 (2.746) | ||||||
| REMIT*GE | −0.0782 (0.792) | ||||||
| Net effect | NSA | PS | 3.30 (TCP) | NA | 1.76 (TCP) | NA | NA |
| Constant | 38.90*** (6.428) | 21.06*** (7.559) | 56.71*** (9.409) | 46.43*** (7.859) | 41.89*** (9.841) | 54.97*** (8.385) | 42.21*** (7.667) |
| Year dummy | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Observations | 240 | 240 | 240 | 240 | 240 | 240 | 240 |
| Number of country | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 |
| No. of instruments | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 |
| 18827.25 | 3541.10 | 18663.50 | 9638.12 | 8617.12 | 12010.61 | 9948.25 | |
| 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.001 | |
| 0.381 | 0.266 | 0.450 | 0.536 | 0.348 | 0.389 | 0.385 | |
| Hansen | 0.422 | 0.455 | 0.601 | 0.305 | 0.391 | 0.501 | 0.306 |
Note(s): ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p<. ***, ** and * significance levels at 1, 5 and 10%, respectively. The significance of values is twofold. (1) The significance of estimated coefficients and the Fisher statistics. (2) The failure to reject the null hypotheses of: (a) no autocorrelation in the AR (1) and AR (2) tests. Values in parathesis are standard errors. RPAE is rural population access to electricity, UPAE is urban population access to electricity, RMIT is remittances, GDP is gross domestic product, FPI is food production index, ICT is Information communication technology, GDS is gross domestic savings, DCPS is domestic credit to the private sector, CORR is the level of corruption, POL is political stability, RQ is regulatory quality, VA is Voice and accountability, RL is rule of law and GE is government effectiveness. NA is not applicable, NSA is not specifically applicable, NS is negative synergies, PS is positive synergies, TCP is threshold for complementary policies and GT is governance threshold
Source(s): Authors’ own work
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