Table 1 The coding categories Category...

Table 1

The coding categories

Category	Short definition and example taken from the empirical data
Approach to rumour debunking Drawing on prior refutations of the rumour (or similar rumours) Presenting personal opinion about the rumour Condemning rumourmongering Demanding responsibility from rumourmongers Indicating negative consequences of rumour dissemination Joking about the rumour and its disseminators Expressing emotional reactions Criterion used in rumour debunking	Depicting the ways in which the pet rumour (or similar rumour) was debunked previously (“The city manager himself debunked it.”, Thread 14) Offering a personal view on why the rumour was created and distributed (“Their strategy is to repeat the lie over and over because they know their supporters will believe it and spread it.”, Thread 31) Disapproving acts dealing with the spreading of the rumour (“JD Vance is wilfully spreading hateful, racist lies.”, Thread 17) Calling for answerability to prevent the dissemination of false rumours (“Politicians have a responsibility to not incite racial hatred.”, Thread 24) Identifying repercussions arising from the dissemination of the false rumour (“I cannot think of what kind of bullying Haitians immigrants are having to face right now.”, Thread 37) Kidding about the rumour and rumourmongers (“I have it from a credible source that JD Vance eats cats and geese.”, Thread 17) Expressing emotional response towards the dissemination of the rumour (“It gives them a valid reason to be racist. Disgusting.”, Thread 37)
Provision of evidence Provision of veracious information Argument quality Source impartiality Perceived honesty of the rumour disseminator Perceived competence of the rumour disseminator	The extent to which the claims constitutive of the rumour are supported by external sources of information (“I saw the police video a week ago on Reddit.”, Thread 16) The extent to which information offers an objective (factual) description of reality (“He has been told directly by the city and the police in the city that it is false.”, Thread 7) The extent to which an argument offers a plausible and logical description of phenomena related to the rumour (“Nazis told him so, so it must be true. Weird logic.”, Thread 11) The extent to which an information source provides an unbiased description of phenomena related to the rumour (“Republicans will believe anything as long as it ties in with a narrative they like.”, Thread 22) The extent to which the disseminator of the rumour is able to consider it in a sincere way (“Trump believes nothing but will lie about everything.”, Thread 6) The extent to which the disseminator of the rumour is considered as capable of evaluating the content of the rumour and the consequences of its dissemination (“JD Vance is an incompetent VP pick who does not fact check or critically think about news from sources he is receiving.”, Thread 17)

Category	Short definition and example taken from the empirical data
Approach to rumour debunkingDrawing on prior refutations of the rumour (or similar rumours)Presenting personal opinion about the rumourCondemning rumourmongeringDemanding responsibility from rumourmongersIndicating negative consequences of rumour disseminationJoking about the rumour and its disseminatorsExpressing emotional reactionsCriterion used in rumour debunking	Depicting the ways in which the pet rumour (or similar rumour) was debunked previously (“The city manager himself debunked it.”, Thread 14)Offering a personal view on why the rumour was created and distributed (“Their strategy is to repeat the lie over and over because they know their supporters will believe it and spread it.”, Thread 31)Disapproving acts dealing with the spreading of the rumour (“JD Vance is wilfully spreading hateful, racist lies.”, Thread 17)Calling for answerability to prevent the dissemination of false rumours (“Politicians have a responsibility to not incite racial hatred.”, Thread 24)Identifying repercussions arising from the dissemination of the false rumour (“I cannot think of what kind of bullying Haitians immigrants are having to face right now.”, Thread 37)Kidding about the rumour and rumourmongers (“I have it from a credible source that JD Vance eats cats and geese.”, Thread 17)Expressing emotional response towards the dissemination of the rumour (“It gives them a valid reason to be racist. Disgusting.”, Thread 37)
Provision of evidenceProvision of veracious informationArgument qualitySource impartialityPerceived honesty of the rumour disseminatorPerceived competence of the rumour disseminator	The extent to which the claims constitutive of the rumour are supported by external sources of information (“I saw the police video a week ago on Reddit.”, Thread 16)The extent to which information offers an objective (factual) description of reality (“He has been told directly by the city and the police in the city that it is false.”, Thread 7)The extent to which an argument offers a plausible and logical description of phenomena related to the rumour (“Nazis told him so, so it must be true. Weird logic.”, Thread 11)The extent to which an information source provides an unbiased description of phenomena related to the rumour (“Republicans will believe anything as long as it ties in with a narrative they like.”, Thread 22)The extent to which the disseminator of the rumour is able to consider it in a sincere way (“Trump believes nothing but will lie about everything.”, Thread 6)The extent to which the disseminator of the rumour is considered as capable of evaluating the content of the rumour and the consequences of its dissemination (“JD Vance is an incompetent VP pick who does not fact check or critically think about news from sources he is receiving.”, Thread 17)

Category

Short definition and example taken from the empirical data

Approach to rumour debunkingDrawing on prior refutations of the rumour (or similar rumours)Presenting personal opinion about the rumourCondemning rumourmongeringDemanding responsibility from rumourmongersIndicating negative consequences of rumour disseminationJoking about the rumour and its disseminatorsExpressing emotional reactionsCriterion used in rumour debunking

Depicting the ways in which the pet rumour (or similar rumour) was debunked previously (“The city manager himself debunked it.”, Thread 14)Offering a personal view on why the rumour was created and distributed (“Their strategy is to repeat the lie over and over because they know their supporters will believe it and spread it.”, Thread 31)Disapproving acts dealing with the spreading of the rumour (“JD Vance is wilfully spreading hateful, racist lies.”, Thread 17)Calling for answerability to prevent the dissemination of false rumours (“Politicians have a responsibility to not incite racial hatred.”, Thread 24)Identifying repercussions arising from the dissemination of the false rumour (“I cannot think of what kind of bullying Haitians immigrants are having to face right now.”, Thread 37)Kidding about the rumour and rumourmongers (“I have it from a credible source that JD Vance eats cats and geese.”, Thread 17)Expressing emotional response towards the dissemination of the rumour (“It gives them a valid reason to be racist. Disgusting.”, Thread 37)

Provision of evidenceProvision of veracious informationArgument qualitySource impartialityPerceived honesty of the rumour disseminatorPerceived competence of the rumour disseminator

The extent to which the claims constitutive of the rumour are supported by external sources of information (“I saw the police video a week ago on Reddit.”, Thread 16)The extent to which information offers an objective (factual) description of reality (“He has been told directly by the city and the police in the city that it is false.”, Thread 7)The extent to which an argument offers a plausible and logical description of phenomena related to the rumour (“Nazis told him so, so it must be true. Weird logic.”, Thread 11)The extent to which an information source provides an unbiased description of phenomena related to the rumour (“Republicans will believe anything as long as it ties in with a narrative they like.”, Thread 22)The extent to which the disseminator of the rumour is able to consider it in a sincere way (“Trump believes nothing but will lie about everything.”, Thread 6)The extent to which the disseminator of the rumour is considered as capable of evaluating the content of the rumour and the consequences of its dissemination (“JD Vance is an incompetent VP pick who does not fact check or critically think about news from sources he is receiving.”, Thread 17)

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