Table 6. The threshold impact of tourism...

Table 6.

The threshold impact of tourism development dimensions on human development in Sub-Saharan Africa

	Enabling environment dimension	Tourism policy and enabling environment dimension	Infrastructure and services dimension	Tourism resources dimension	Tourism sustainability dimension
Variables	(20)	(21)	(22)	(23)	(24)
Threshold	3.8540	3.8282	2.2815	1.8101	3.9618
C. I	[3.6211–3.8934]]	[3.7730–3.8488]	[2.2707–2.3460]	[1.7399–1.8145]	[3.9139–3.9904]
$β_{0} E E D$	0.0416*** (0.0100)
$β_{1} E E D$	0.0415*** (0.0194)
$β_{0} T P E E D$		−0.0249* (0.0131)
$β_{1} T P E E D$		0.0273* (0.0127)
$β_{0} I S D$			0.0379*** (0.0109)
$β_{1} I S D$			0.0418*** (0.0105)
$β_{0} T R D$				−0.489*** (0.154)
$β_{1} T R D$				0.122** (0.0427)
$β_{0} T S D$					−0.0225* (0.0124)
$β_{1} T S D$					0.0279** (0.0118)
POP	−0.3632*** (0.135)	0.222 (0.266)	0.187*** (0.097)	−0.261** (0.124)	−0.382** (0.149)
URB	−0.00921 (0.00599)	−0.0114** (0.00503)	−0.00798** (0.00364)	−0.00144 (0.00429)	−0.00446 (0.00558)
GCF	−0.000154 (0.000741)	−0.000880 (0.000647)	−0.000175 (0.000410)	−0.000662 (0.000489)	−0.000175 (0.000619)
GEX	0.0301*** (0.00225)	0.0253*** (0.00163)	0.0330*** (0.00126)	0.0195*** (0.00141)	0.0364*** (0.00219)
DIG	0.00198 (0.00145)	0.00184 (0.00106)	0.000182 (0.000813)	0.00158 (0.000906)	0.000841 (0.00117)
Constant	1.288 (2.169)	−0.403 (1.708)	0.698 (1.267)	1.592 (1.434)	2.000 (2.250)
No. Countries	38	38	38	38	38
R-squared	0.552	0.700	0.829	0.790	0.626

	Enabling environment dimension	Tourism policy and enabling environment dimension	Infrastructure and services dimension	Tourism resources dimension	Tourism sustainability dimension
Variables	(20)	(21)	(22)	(23)	(24)
Threshold	3.8540	3.8282	2.2815	1.8101	3.9618
C. I	[3.6211–3.8934]]	[3.7730–3.8488]	[2.2707–2.3460]	[1.7399–1.8145]	[3.9139–3.9904]
$β_{0} E E D$	0.0416*** (0.0100)
$β_{1} E E D$	0.0415*** (0.0194)
$β_{0} T P E E D$		−0.0249* (0.0131)
$β_{1} T P E E D$		0.0273* (0.0127)
$β_{0} I S D$			0.0379*** (0.0109)
$β_{1} I S D$			0.0418*** (0.0105)
$β_{0} T R D$				−0.489*** (0.154)
$β_{1} T R D$				0.122** (0.0427)
$β_{0} T S D$					−0.0225* (0.0124)
$β_{1} T S D$					0.0279** (0.0118)
POP	−0.3632*** (0.135)	0.222 (0.266)	0.187*** (0.097)	−0.261** (0.124)	−0.382** (0.149)
URB	−0.00921 (0.00599)	−0.0114** (0.00503)	−0.00798** (0.00364)	−0.00144 (0.00429)	−0.00446 (0.00558)
GCF	−0.000154 (0.000741)	−0.000880 (0.000647)	−0.000175 (0.000410)	−0.000662 (0.000489)	−0.000175 (0.000619)
GEX	0.0301*** (0.00225)	0.0253*** (0.00163)	0.0330*** (0.00126)	0.0195*** (0.00141)	0.0364*** (0.00219)
DIG	0.00198 (0.00145)	0.00184 (0.00106)	0.000182 (0.000813)	0.00158 (0.000906)	0.000841 (0.00117)
Constant	1.288 (2.169)	−0.403 (1.708)	0.698 (1.267)	1.592 (1.434)	2.000 (2.250)
No. Countries	38	38	38	38	38
R-squared	0.552	0.700	0.829	0.790	0.626

Note(s):

Standard errors in parentheses; ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1 EED = Enabling environment dimension; TPEED = Tourism Policy and Enabling Environment dimension; ISD = Infrastructure and services dimension; TRD = Tourism resources dimension; TSD = Tourism sustainability dimension; POP = population growth; URB = Urbanization; GCF = Gross capital formation; GEF = Government effectiveness; GEX = Government expenditure on education; DIG = Digitalization The coefficients β₀ represent the effect before the threshold, while β₁ represents the effect after the threshold

Source(s): Authors’ own work (2025)

[ViewLarge]

Sharing Unavailable