Multi-level drivers and barriers for gender equality in Japan
| Domain | Level | Drivers | Barriers |
|---|---|---|---|
| Markets | Macro | Investor demand supports gender equality for financial performance (Kobayashi and Eweje, 2021) | Conflict between traditional norms and global equality expectations (deeply rooted cultural expectations) (Nemoto, 2013; Zhou, 2015) |
| Positive link between equality and profit attracts investors (Kato and Kodama, 2018; Nakagawa and Schreiber, 2014) | Limited prioritisation of gender equality because of caregiving expectations (deeply rooted cultural expectations) (Nemoto, 2013) | ||
| Meso | Companies adopt equality measures to attract investment (Vigneau et al., 2015) | Superficial compliance with equality targets, lacking cultural transformation (Matsui, 2019) | |
| Micro | Pro-equality investors influence organisational practices (Kato and Kodama, 2018) | Individual investor biases limit organisational equality efforts (Matsui, 2019) | |
| Government/public domain | Macro | National policies promoting gender equality (The 2015 Act on Promotion of Women’s Participation and Advancement in the Workplace) (Zhang-Zhang, 2024) | Lack of enforcement mechanisms in gender equality policies (Iida, 2024; Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office, 2023; Zhang-Zhang, 2024) |
| Shift in public support for dual-career roles reflects evolving views (deeply rooted cultural expectations) (Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office, 2023) | Legal and employment structures reinforcing traditional roles (Nagase, 2024; Zhang-Zhang, 2024) | ||
| Meso | Political party promotes gender equality through policies such as the 2018 Law for the Promotion of Gender Parity in Politics | Overwork culture and weak policy enforcement inhibit women’s political roles (Nemoto, 2013) | |
| Micro | Politician and public sector workers can individually support gender equality (Wang, 2021) | Cultural biases among officials limit proactive equality efforts (deeply rooted cultural expectations) (Kobayashi and Eweje, 2021; Zhang-Zhang, 2024) | |
| Families | Macro | Shift towards dual-income families indicates evolving family roles (deeply rooted cultural expectations) (Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office, 2023) | Cultural expectations assign primary caregiving to women, limiting career options (deeply rooted cultural expectations) (Nagase, 2024; Zhang-Zhang, 2024) |
| Working fathers lead a change (Goldstein-Gidoni, 2020) | Husbands’ long work hours reinforce traditional gender roles (deeply rooted cultural expectations) (Hamada, 2018; Iida, 2024) | ||
| Meso | Grandparents provide childcare support, enabling mothers to work (Yamaguchi, 2019) | Dependence on family reinforces traditional caregiving roles for women (Nagase, 2024; Zhang-Zhang, 2024) | |
| Micro | Supportive husbands/partners share household duties (Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office, 2022; Nagase and Brinton, 2017) | Limited male involvement in household responsibilities constrains women’s careers (Nagase, 2024; Iida, 2024) | |
| Education | Macro | National policies incorporate gender equality into school curricula (Yamaguchi, 2019) | Limited scope of policies to challenge cultural norms (Zhang-Zhang, 2024) |
| Meso | Schools/universities encourage gender equality awareness (Kitada and Harada, 2019) | Career guidance channels girls into traditional fields (Yamaguchi, 2019; Zhang-Zhang, 2024) | |
| Female participation in STEM fields challenges stereotypes (Zhang-Zhang, 2024) | Gendered assumptions limit women’s career diversity (deeply rooted cultural expectations) (Yoshikawa et al., 2018; Zhang-Zhang, 2024) | ||
| Micro | High academic achievement among girls shows potential for gender parity (OECD, 2020) | Socialisation discourages girls from competitive fields, reinforcing norms (deeply rooted cultural expectations) (Yoshikawa et al., 2018) |
| Domain | Level | Drivers | Barriers |
|---|---|---|---|
| Markets | Macro | Investor demand supports gender equality for financial performance ( | Conflict between traditional norms and global equality expectations (deeply rooted cultural expectations) ( |
| Positive link between equality and profit attracts investors ( | Limited prioritisation of gender equality because of caregiving expectations (deeply rooted cultural expectations) ( | ||
| Meso | Companies adopt equality measures to attract investment ( | Superficial compliance with equality targets, lacking cultural transformation ( | |
| Micro | Pro-equality investors influence organisational practices ( | Individual investor biases limit organisational equality efforts ( | |
| Government/public domain | Macro | National policies promoting gender equality (The 2015 Act on Promotion of Women’s Participation and Advancement in the Workplace) ( | Lack of enforcement mechanisms in gender equality policies ( |
| Shift in public support for dual-career roles reflects evolving views (deeply rooted cultural expectations) ( | Legal and employment structures reinforcing traditional roles ( | ||
| Meso | Political party promotes gender equality through policies such as the 2018 Law for the Promotion of Gender Parity in Politics | Overwork culture and weak policy enforcement inhibit women’s political roles ( | |
| Micro | Politician and public sector workers can individually support gender equality ( | Cultural biases among officials limit proactive equality efforts (deeply rooted cultural expectations) ( | |
| Families | Macro | Shift towards dual-income families indicates evolving family roles (deeply rooted cultural expectations) ( | Cultural expectations assign primary caregiving to women, limiting career options (deeply rooted cultural expectations) ( |
| Working fathers lead a change ( | Husbands’ long work hours reinforce traditional gender roles (deeply rooted cultural expectations) ( | ||
| Meso | Grandparents provide childcare support, enabling mothers to work ( | Dependence on family reinforces traditional caregiving roles for women ( | |
| Micro | Supportive husbands/partners share household duties ( | Limited male involvement in household responsibilities constrains women’s careers ( | |
| Education | Macro | National policies incorporate gender equality into school curricula ( | Limited scope of policies to challenge cultural norms ( |
| Meso | Schools/universities encourage gender equality awareness ( | Career guidance channels girls into traditional fields ( | |
| Female participation in | Gendered assumptions limit women’s career diversity (deeply rooted cultural expectations) ( | ||
| Micro | High academic achievement among girls shows potential for gender parity ( | Socialisation discourages girls from competitive fields, reinforcing norms (deeply rooted cultural expectations) ( |
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