Table 2 Description of variables...

Table 2

Description of variables

Variable	Description
Structural characteristics
Ecosystem presence	A quantitative representation of the types of actors within the extended ecosystem. This variable reflects the structural dimension of the ecosystem and the presence of diverse actors within its networks
Integration level	The number of incoming links (indegree) received by an entity within the extended ecosystem from core tourism actors (n = 670). This variable reflects a relational dimension of the ecosystem and the frequency of connections in its networks
Ecosystem leadership	The extent to which a tourism actor (n = 670) plays a prominent role within the ecosystem, characterised by a high or low web authority—that is the influence, trust, and credibility associated with the website on the Web. This variable is measured using the Domain Rating of Ahrefs.com, which evaluates the strength of a website’s (domain’s) backlink profile relative to other domains in its database, on a 100-point scale. A higher rating corresponds to a higher level of leadership
Mediation	The extent to which a tourism actor (n = 670) connects other tourism actors within the network. It reflects the actor’s role as a critical element on the shortest way connecting pairs of actors, thereby facilitating information flow. This variable is assessed using the betweenness centrality measure, which quantifies the number of times a node functions as a bridge on the shortest paths between other nodes. The normalised scale of betweenness centrality adjusts the measure to a 0–1 range, where 1 indicates the maximum possible intermediary strength within the network
Networking behaviours
External index	The disposition of core tourism actors^a to link to external actors as opposed to internal actors, i.e. primary and added tourism sectors. For each actor, the index is calculated^b by subtracting the number of links to internal actors from the number of links to external actors and then dividing this difference by the total number of links to both categories. Scores range from −1.0 to +1.0, where +1.0 represents complete linkage to external actors, −1.0 represents exclusive linkage to internal actors, and 0 indicates a balanced state of linking to both categories
ICT index	The disposition of core tourism actors^a to link to ICT actors as opposed to institutional and socio-economic non-tourism (ISEN) actors. For each actor, the index is calculated^b by subtracting the number of links to ISEN actors from the number of links to ICT actors and then dividing this difference by the total number of links to both categories. Scores range from −1.0 to +1.0, where +1.0 represents complete linkage to ICT actors, −1.0 represents exclusive linkage to ISEN actors, and 0 indicates a balanced state of linking to both categories
T-Tech index	The disposition of core tourism actors^a to link to travel tech actors as opposed to general ICT actors. For each actor, the index is calculated^b by subtracting the number of links to general ICT actors from the number of links to travel tech actors and then dividing this difference by the total number of links to both categories. Scores range from −1.0 to +1.0, where +1.0 represents complete linkage to travel tech actors, −1.0 represents exclusive linkage to general ICT actors, and 0 indicates a balanced state of linking to both categories
Connecting activity	The number of outbound links placed by a core tourism actor (n = 670) within the extended ecosystem (n = 1,111^c) to tourism actors, ICT actors, and institutional and socio-economic non-tourism actors
Variety of connections	The number of different types of actors linked by a tourism actor (n = 670) in the extended tourism ecosystem (n = 1,111^c). Actor types include: accommodations; destination management organisations; natural and cultural resources; tourism-related public bodies; travel agencies and other reservation services; sports and recreation service companies; general ICT; travel tech; development actors; governmental and intergovernmental agencies; non-tourism information services; research and education; retail services, banks, and other businesses (as one category)

Variable	Description
Structural characteristics
Ecosystem presence	A quantitative representation of the types of actors within the extended ecosystem. This variable reflects the structural dimension of the ecosystem and the presence of diverse actors within its networks
Integration level	The number of incoming links (indegree) received by an entity within the extended ecosystem from core tourism actors (n = 670). This variable reflects a relational dimension of the ecosystem and the frequency of connections in its networks
Ecosystem leadership	The extent to which a tourism actor (n = 670) plays a prominent role within the ecosystem, characterised by a high or low web authority—that is the influence, trust, and credibility associated with the website on the Web. This variable is measured using the Domain Rating of Ahrefs.com, which evaluates the strength of a website’s (domain’s) backlink profile relative to other domains in its database, on a 100-point scale. A higher rating corresponds to a higher level of leadership
Mediation	The extent to which a tourism actor (n = 670) connects other tourism actors within the network. It reflects the actor’s role as a critical element on the shortest way connecting pairs of actors, thereby facilitating information flow. This variable is assessed using the betweenness centrality measure, which quantifies the number of times a node functions as a bridge on the shortest paths between other nodes. The normalised scale of betweenness centrality adjusts the measure to a 0–1 range, where 1 indicates the maximum possible intermediary strength within the network
Networking behaviours
External index	The disposition of core tourism actors^a to link to external actors as opposed to internal actors, i.e. primary and added tourism sectors. For each actor, the index is calculated^b by subtracting the number of links to internal actors from the number of links to external actors and then dividing this difference by the total number of links to both categories. Scores range from −1.0 to +1.0, where +1.0 represents complete linkage to external actors, −1.0 represents exclusive linkage to internal actors, and 0 indicates a balanced state of linking to both categories
ICT index	The disposition of core tourism actors^a to link to ICT actors as opposed to institutional and socio-economic non-tourism (ISEN) actors. For each actor, the index is calculated^b by subtracting the number of links to ISEN actors from the number of links to ICT actors and then dividing this difference by the total number of links to both categories. Scores range from −1.0 to +1.0, where +1.0 represents complete linkage to ICT actors, −1.0 represents exclusive linkage to ISEN actors, and 0 indicates a balanced state of linking to both categories
T-Tech index	The disposition of core tourism actors^a to link to travel tech actors as opposed to general ICT actors. For each actor, the index is calculated^b by subtracting the number of links to general ICT actors from the number of links to travel tech actors and then dividing this difference by the total number of links to both categories. Scores range from −1.0 to +1.0, where +1.0 represents complete linkage to travel tech actors, −1.0 represents exclusive linkage to general ICT actors, and 0 indicates a balanced state of linking to both categories
Connecting activity	The number of outbound links placed by a core tourism actor (n = 670) within the extended ecosystem (n = 1,111^c) to tourism actors, ICT actors, and institutional and socio-economic non-tourism actors
Variety of connections	The number of different types of actors linked by a tourism actor (n = 670) in the extended tourism ecosystem (n = 1,111^c). Actor types include: accommodations; destination management organisations; natural and cultural resources; tourism-related public bodies; travel agencies and other reservation services; sports and recreation service companies; general ICT; travel tech; development actors; governmental and intergovernmental agencies; non-tourism information services; research and education; retail services, banks, and other businesses (as one category)

Note(s): ^aThe index accounts for the links placed by primary “core” tourism actors (n = 670) among themselves and to the classified actors of the discovered ecosystem (n = 447). The index is not calculated for actors without outgoing links to the relevant categories of actors (e.g. without outgoing links to both internal and external actors in the case of the External index). ^bThe index is calculated similarly to the E-I index of Krackhardt and Stern (1988). ^cActors that could not be classified were excluded

Source(s): Created by authors

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