Comparison between African collectivism and non-Western collectivism
| Aspect | African collectivism (e.g. Ubuntu) | Asian collectivism (e.g. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism) | Latin-American collectivism (e.g. Familismo and Marianismo) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Philosophical foundation | It is founded on deeply moral and spiritual responsibility, human interconnectedness with emphasis on human dignity, communal moral obligations and reciprocity (Kupangwa et al., 2025) | It emphasises filial piety, hierarchical relationships, social harmony, respect for elders and authorities and moral virtues (Zhao et al., 2023; Chu and Vu, 2022) | It is based on Catholicism, Familismo (family loyalty) and Marianismo (role of women), which influence obligations, gender roles and moral duties (Artina et al., 2020; Cruz-Cárdenas et al., 2019; Whitten, 2001) |
| Form of authority | Authority is shaped by elders, chiefs and communal consensus and decisions are often dialogic and relational (Matsiliza, 2024; Metz, 2020) | Authority is hierarchical, with a strong emphasis on age, seniority and status in decision-making (Zhao et al., 2023; Chu and Vu, 2022) | Authority is patriarchal yet relational – authority is often centred in male figures but tempered by emotional closeness and bond (Chenet Ugarte and Barmeyer, 2025) |
| Expression of belonging | Identity is embedded in community and ancestry; belonging to inherited and spiritual (McFarlin et al., 1999) | Identity is tied to family and extended bonds, and role-based responsibilities and relationships, while nurturing unity (Zhao et al., 2023; Chu and Vu, 2022) | Identity is often defined through relational closeness and emotional warmth with family, extended family and friends (Chenet Ugarte and Barmeyer, 2025) |
| Religious influence | Indigenous spirituality and Christianity provide social ethics, solidarity and communal rituals (Zoogah, 2013) | Religion is culturally contextualised, based on Confucian ethics, ancestor worship, Buddhism, obedience and collective ethics (Chu and Vu, 2022) | Catholicism strongly influences notions of sacrifice, duty, care and especially maternal responsibilities (Berríos, 2024) |
| Conflict resolution | It is based on forgiveness, reconciliation, restorative justice and collective healing (Denton, 2018) | It is based on the avoidance of open conflict to preserve harmony; therefore, indirect communication is used to resolve conflicts (Lin et al., 2021) | Relies more on direct communication, including emotional expression, which is tolerated and often welcomed (Chenet Ugarte and Barmeyer, 2025) |
| Economic practices | They are mostly based on informal economic networks, communal well-being, social obligation, interdependence and shared resources (Ngubane and Gumede, 2018; Letseka, 2012) | They Emphasise group-oriented needs, building long-term relationships (e.g. employees committed to the employer), labour (e.g. FBs) and respect for authority (Berríos, 2024; Chu and Vu, 2022) | Economic practices focus on family-centred entrepreneurship, remittances from abroad and shared informal economies (Solís et al., 2016) |
| Aspect | African collectivism (e.g. Ubuntu) | Asian collectivism (e.g. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism) | Latin-American collectivism (e.g. Familismo and Marianismo) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Philosophical foundation | It is founded on deeply moral and spiritual responsibility, human interconnectedness with emphasis on human dignity, communal moral obligations and reciprocity ( | It emphasises filial piety, hierarchical relationships, social harmony, respect for elders and authorities and moral virtues ( | It is based on Catholicism, |
| Form of authority | Authority is shaped by elders, chiefs and communal consensus and decisions are often dialogic and relational ( | Authority is hierarchical, with a strong emphasis on age, seniority and status in decision-making ( | Authority is patriarchal yet relational – authority is often centred in male figures but tempered by emotional closeness and bond ( |
| Expression of belonging | Identity is embedded in community and ancestry; belonging to inherited and spiritual ( | Identity is tied to family and extended bonds, and role-based responsibilities and relationships, while nurturing unity ( | Identity is often defined through relational closeness and emotional warmth with family, extended family and friends ( |
| Religious influence | Indigenous spirituality and Christianity provide social ethics, solidarity and communal rituals ( | Religion is culturally contextualised, based on Confucian ethics, ancestor worship, Buddhism, obedience and collective ethics ( | Catholicism strongly influences notions of sacrifice, duty, care and especially maternal responsibilities ( |
| Conflict resolution | It is based on forgiveness, reconciliation, restorative justice and collective healing ( | It is based on the avoidance of open conflict to preserve harmony; therefore, indirect communication is used to resolve conflicts ( | Relies more on direct communication, including emotional expression, which is tolerated and often welcomed ( |
| Economic practices | They are mostly based on informal economic networks, communal well-being, social obligation, interdependence and shared resources ( | They Emphasise group-oriented needs, building long-term relationships (e.g. employees committed to the employer), labour (e.g. FBs) and respect for authority ( | Economic practices focus on family-centred entrepreneurship, remittances from abroad and shared informal economies ( |
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