Table 10

Robustness analysis for equation (2)

VariablesModel 4Model 5Model 6
Whole period (2015–2022)Pre-COVID (2015–2018)Post-COVID (2019–2022)
FOWN−0.0003 (−0.67)−0.0007 (−1.77)−0.0016*** (−4.17)
FOWN*COVID-19−0.0017** (−3.13)  
COVID-190.1966*** (8.44)  
BODMEET0.0199*** (11.97)0.0224*** (9.56)0.0172*** (7.35)
BODSIZE0.0378*** (4.67)0.0305** (2.74)0.0487*** (4.14)
IDR0.0062*** (3.30)0.0055* (2.11)0.0079** (2.91)
INVESTPROP0.0034*** (16.77)0.0038*** (12.84)0.0031*** (11.11)
LEV0.8323*** (27.49)0.7912*** (17.72)0.8597*** (20.74)
ROE0.5216*** (5.55)0.8649*** (6.14)0.2778* (2.18)
INVR−0.0555 (−1.86)0.0023 (0.05)−0.1187** (−2.80)
FIRMAGE0.0013 (1.26)−0.0012 (−0.80)0.0031* (2.22)
BIG40.5211*** (20.10)0.5124*** (12.26)0.5252*** (15.93)
ADMEXP−0.1923*** (−4.45)−0.1892*** (−3.70)−0.1784* (−2.17)
ICE0.0602* (2.20)0.0771* (2.36)0.0243 (0.48)
AIQ−0.0609* (−2.12)0.0655 (1.46)−0.1530*** (−4.11)
_cons12.5464*** (89.91)12.5029*** (65.09)12.7197*** (62.65)
N7,2523,4863,766
adj. R20.28430.27310.2731
F192.9809101.7015109.8148

Note(s): FOWN = equity owned by family members, COVID-19 = COVID-19 pandemic, BODMEET = board meetings, BODSIZE = directors on the board, IDR = independent directors on the board, INVESTPROP = institutional investor shareholder ratio, LEV = total liability/total assets, ROE = return on equity, INVR = inventory/total revenue, FIRMAGE = firm living years, BIG4 = Big 4 audit firm, ADMEXP = administrative expenses/operating revenue, ICE = internal control weaknesses, and AIQ = audit opinion; *p < 0.1, **p < 0.05, ***p < 0.01 (t statistics in parentheses)

Source(s): Authors’ own creation

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