Table 4 Student engagement items...

Table 4

Student engagement items

Dimension	Items	T-statistic	p-value	Cohen’s d
Cognitive engagement	Information processing	−1.101	0.274	−0.115
	Immediate feedback	−0.709	0.480	−0.074
	Independent studying	−0.815	0.417	−0.085
	Concentration	−3.539	0.001	−0.369
	Comprehension of topics	−0.483	0.630	−0.050
	Memorization	−1.642	0.104	−0.171
	Time efficiency	0.528	0.6	0.055
	Reinforcement in learning process	−0.871	0.385	−0.09
Emotional engagement	Effective motivation	−0.757	0.451	−0.079
	Sense of companionship	−0.363	0.717	−0.038
	Entertainment	−1.558	0.123	−0.162
	Empathy	−2.637	0.010	−0.275
	Anxiety reduction	−2.257	0.026	−0.235
	Trusting relationships	−1.578	0.118	−0.165
	Dedication to studying	−1.880	0.063	−0.196
Behavioral engagement	Self-directed learning	−1.995	0.049	−0.208
	Task completion	0.097	0.923	0.010
	Achieving of learning objectives	0.345	0.731	0.036
	Improvement in classroom participation	−1.116	0.268	−0.116
	Dynamic interactions	−1.107	0.271	−0.115
	Individual support	−1.503	0.136	−0.157
	Paced learning	0.477	0.635	0.050
	Stimulated attention	−0.560	0.577	−0.058

Dimension	Items	T-statistic	p-value	Cohen’s d
Cognitive engagement	Information processing	−1.101	0.274	−0.115
	Immediate feedback	−0.709	0.480	−0.074
	Independent studying	−0.815	0.417	−0.085
	Concentration	−3.539	0.001	−0.369
	Comprehension of topics	−0.483	0.630	−0.050
	Memorization	−1.642	0.104	−0.171
	Time efficiency	0.528	0.6	0.055
	Reinforcement in learning process	−0.871	0.385	−0.09
Emotional engagement	Effective motivation	−0.757	0.451	−0.079
	Sense of companionship	−0.363	0.717	−0.038
	Entertainment	−1.558	0.123	−0.162
	Empathy	−2.637	0.010	−0.275
	Anxiety reduction	−2.257	0.026	−0.235
	Trusting relationships	−1.578	0.118	−0.165
	Dedication to studying	−1.880	0.063	−0.196
Behavioral engagement	Self-directed learning	−1.995	0.049	−0.208
	Task completion	0.097	0.923	0.010
	Achieving of learning objectives	0.345	0.731	0.036
	Improvement in classroom participation	−1.116	0.268	−0.116
	Dynamic interactions	−1.107	0.271	−0.115
	Individual support	−1.503	0.136	−0.157
	Paced learning	0.477	0.635	0.050
	Stimulated attention	−0.560	0.577	−0.058

Source(s): Created by authors