Data

Data volume: Digital co-production tools facilitate the collection and analysis of large volumes of data, providing public employees with insights into citizen preferences, behaviour, and usage patterns (Breit and Salomon, 2015; Linders, 2012).

Data quality: Better quality and more timely data enhance government operations, refining decision-making processes, capabilities, and capacity (Scholta et al., 2019).

Data issues: With digital co-production there are issues related to data quality, confidentiality, interoperability, and limited open government data (Clarke, 2020; Garlatti et al., 2023).

Value from data: The potential to create value by improving processes and services from increasing data is currently unexploited (Pauluzzo et al., 2024).

Interaction

Collaboration: Digitalisation improves the sustainability of public service provision through collaborative practices between service providers and users (Lember et al., 2019; Linders, 2012).

New idea generation: Digital co-production allows the generation of innovative ideas and solutions by public employees, as well as partnerships with diverse expertise and resources (Meijer, 2011).

Challenge to power dynamics: digital co-production leads to increased pressures for public employees due to changes in the structure and tasks of those responsible for digitalised services as well as supervising and coordinating digitalisation processes (Linders, 2012; Rodriguez Müller et al., 2021; Pauluzzo et al., 2024).

Resistance to interaction: Power dynamics, coupled with a “silo” mentality and a lack of expertise among public employees, may provoke resistance to interaction because of new responsibilities and roles, that require extra effort, resources, time, and capacity (Clarke, 2020; Cuadrado-Ballesteros et al., 2023; Kuhlmann and Heuberger, 2023; Paskaleva and Cooper, 2018).

Tailoring

Customisation: Digital co-production brings enhanced performance and customisation of public service delivery by citizens and public employees (Breit and Salomon, 2015).

Accountability: Engaging in digital co-production enhances the accountability of public service providers and favours changes to strategically manage user participation as it brings shifts in organisational culture, procedures, and capabilities (Hepburn, 2018).

Out-of-date regulations: A rapidly evolving digital landscape can outpace existing regulations and even reduce the need to engage citizens directly (Lember et al., 2019).

Missing the mark: The information collected may not allow digitalised services to align with expectations by public employees (Peeters and Widlak, 2018).

Standardisation: Digitalisation requires centralisation and standardisation, rather than tailored co-production (Bovens and Zouridis, 2002).

Simplification

Reduced costs: Digital co-production leads to reduced costs in terms of resource requirements (Bozeman and Feeney, 2011; Meijer, 2011).

Reduced times: Digitalisation leads to reduced times needed for co-productive interactions which are made easier for both public employees and citizens (Scholta et al., 2019).

Higher burdens: Complex regulations and limited technology acceptance increase operational costs and extend the time needed to execute ICT-enabled initiatives by public employees (Bozeman and Feeney, 2011; Jacobsen and Jakobsen, 2018; Tummers et al., 2015).

Disconnected requirements: Digital operations may be based on an information architecture which does not favour ease of use and perceived usefulness by public officials as it is disconnected from the requirements of policy execution and co-production (Osborne et al., 2016; Roy, 2021).