Table 2 Summary of government roles... | Emerald Publishing

Table 2

Summary of government roles (themes) associated activities (codes)

Roles (themes)	Government activities (codes)	Description	Source literature
Host (and regulator)	Reliance on nonprofit agencies	Governments are responsible for ensuring adequate coverage of disasters occurring within their borders but can lack the capacity, budget, expertise and skills to accomplish this alone. Therefore, a host government must depend on nonprofits to provide humanitarian services when a disaster does occur, using various policies and strategies to maximize the welfare of those affected	Fathalikhani et al. (2020)
	Imposing tighter regulations to limit external assistance	Governments can purposefully elect to impose regulations and policies (e.g. banning communication equipment, travel restrictions and increasing customs clearance complexity) that limit the ability of external actors (i.e. foreign governments, NGOs and multinational organizations) to provide humanitarian assistance	Tomasini and Van Wassenhove (2009); Balcik et al. (2010); Akhtar et al. (2012); Menkhaus (2012); Kunz and Gold (2015); Yadav and Barve (2015); Dube et al. (2016); Kunz and Reiner (2016); Negi (2022)
	Easing regulations to facilitate external assistance	Governments can elect to impose regulations and policies (e.g. shortened waiting times for customs clearance; exemptions from paying duty fees, value-added taxes, tolls and other regulatory fees, making warehouse space readily available) that enhance the ability of external actors (i.e. foreign governments, NGOs and multinational organizations) to provide humanitarian assistance	McLachlin and Larson (2011); John and Ramesh (2012); Kunz and Gold (2015); Yadav and Barve (2015); Mushanyuri and Ngcamu (2020); Negi (2022)
	Aid distribution strategies	Using uneven aid distribution to settle political grudges, advance political agendas or against marginalized communities versus structuring aid distribution to ensure equity across the population	Garrett and Sobel (2003); Kunz and Gold (2015); Dube et al. (2016); Mora-Ochomogo et al. (2016); Dube and Broekhuis (2018); Mushanyuri and Ngcamu (2020); Chari et al. (2021)
Funder (and responder)	Providing financial and material contributions	Directly providing relief supplies, subsidies on relief materials or direct cash payments to victims or NGOs during humanitarian operations	Garrett and Sobel (2003); Heaslip and Kovács (2019); Damoah (2022); Negi (2022); Choudhury et al. (2023)
	Expedient funds availability	Making funds quickly available following a disaster	Kabra and Ramesh (2015); Rayawan et al. (2021)
	Funding for lower levels	Providing funding to lower levels of government (e.g. states/provinces and local jurisdictions) as their capabilities exceed the logistical response’s needs	Apte and Heath (2011)
	Funding transparency	Ensuring that victims, donors and organizations understand the destination of disaster funding	Mushanyuri and Ngcamu (2020); Rayawan et al. (2021); Negi (2022); Rahman et al. (2022)
	Infrastructure investment	Investing in critical infrastructure maintenance for disaster mitigation (pre-disaster) and repairs (post-disaster), including transportation networks, hospitals and clinics and communication networks	de Leeuw et al. (2012); Salam and Khan (2020); Chari et al. (2021); Rayawan et al. (2021); Damoah (2022); Negi (2022); Tasnim et al. (2022)
	Supply provision strategies	Developing supply provision strategies include stockpiling, prepositioning supplies, active supplier relationships, resource-sharing agreements, transportation and fast-track procurement	Acimovic and Goentzel (2016); Wilson et al. (2018); Velasquez et al. (2019); Minguito and Banluta (2023)
	The government as the responder	The government, typically through an agency like FEMA or the military, is often the first to act in the actual response to a disaster	Kovács and Spens (2007); Oloruntoba (2010); Apte and Heath (2011); John and Ramesh (2012); Swanson and Smith (2013)
Coordinator	Preparedness plans	Developing short and long-term action plans in the event of various disaster scenarios, including evacuation plans, risk assessment and community education	Oloruntoba (2010); Rodríguez-Espíndola et al. (2018)
	Authorization	Authorizing relief operations and resource use for various humanitarian actors	Mora-Ochomogo et al. (2016); Singh et al. (2018)
	Working with other stakeholders to minimize duplication of effort	Ensure that multiple actors are not working toward the same objectives without awareness of each other; ensure that actors and associated resources are spread out appropriately to impact the most victims	Roh et al. (2015); Abazari et al. (2022); Negi (2022); Xu et al. (2023)
	Commanding other actors	Command and control over other government actors (e.g., local, national and international agencies); responsibility for Unity of effort for government, NGO and private sector actors in the humanitarian response	Oloruntoba (2010); John and Ramesh (2012); Quarshie and Leuschner (2020)
	Orchestrating voluntary actors and NGOs	Organizing the efforts of voluntary actors and NGOs, not in a command and control sense but through softer forms of direction and guidance	Quarshie and Leuschner (2020); Agarwal et al. (2021); Rahman et al. (2022)
	Public–private partnerships	Creating public–private partnerships to facilitate interagency coordination through active relationship and contract management (e.g. coordination with commercial sellers to hold stocks of inventory for potential use in disasters)	Oloruntoba (2010); Swanson and Smith (2013); Wisetjindawat et al. (2014); Vega and Roussat (2015); Wilson et al. (2018)
	Community emphasis	Building local community trust through transparency, communication and information dissemination; leveraging local community organizations to connect with hard-to-reach populations that centralized/national organizations cannot reach; and reducing the cultural, geographical and institutional distance between governments and communities	Moore et al. (2009); Chen et al. (2013); Kunz et al. (2014); Lu et al. (2018); Rayawan et al. (2021)

Roles (themes)	Government activities (codes)	Description	Source literature
Host (and regulator)	Reliance on nonprofit agencies	Governments are responsible for ensuring adequate coverage of disasters occurring within their borders but can lack the capacity, budget, expertise and skills to accomplish this alone. Therefore, a host government must depend on nonprofits to provide humanitarian services when a disaster does occur, using various policies and strategies to maximize the welfare of those affected	Fathalikhani et al. (2020)
	Imposing tighter regulations to limit external assistance	Governments can purposefully elect to impose regulations and policies (e.g. banning communication equipment, travel restrictions and increasing customs clearance complexity) that limit the ability of external actors (i.e. foreign governments, NGOs and multinational organizations) to provide humanitarian assistance	Tomasini and Van Wassenhove (2009); Balcik et al. (2010); Akhtar et al. (2012); Menkhaus (2012); Kunz and Gold (2015); Yadav and Barve (2015); Dube et al. (2016); Kunz and Reiner (2016); Negi (2022)
	Easing regulations to facilitate external assistance	Governments can elect to impose regulations and policies (e.g. shortened waiting times for customs clearance; exemptions from paying duty fees, value-added taxes, tolls and other regulatory fees, making warehouse space readily available) that enhance the ability of external actors (i.e. foreign governments, NGOs and multinational organizations) to provide humanitarian assistance	McLachlin and Larson (2011); John and Ramesh (2012); Kunz and Gold (2015); Yadav and Barve (2015); Mushanyuri and Ngcamu (2020); Negi (2022)
	Aid distribution strategies	Using uneven aid distribution to settle political grudges, advance political agendas or against marginalized communities versus structuring aid distribution to ensure equity across the population	Garrett and Sobel (2003); Kunz and Gold (2015); Dube et al. (2016); Mora-Ochomogo et al. (2016); Dube and Broekhuis (2018); Mushanyuri and Ngcamu (2020); Chari et al. (2021)
Funder (and responder)	Providing financial and material contributions	Directly providing relief supplies, subsidies on relief materials or direct cash payments to victims or NGOs during humanitarian operations	Garrett and Sobel (2003); Heaslip and Kovács (2019); Damoah (2022); Negi (2022); Choudhury et al. (2023)
	Expedient funds availability	Making funds quickly available following a disaster	Kabra and Ramesh (2015); Rayawan et al. (2021)
	Funding for lower levels	Providing funding to lower levels of government (e.g. states/provinces and local jurisdictions) as their capabilities exceed the logistical response’s needs	Apte and Heath (2011)
	Funding transparency	Ensuring that victims, donors and organizations understand the destination of disaster funding	Mushanyuri and Ngcamu (2020); Rayawan et al. (2021); Negi (2022); Rahman et al. (2022)
	Infrastructure investment	Investing in critical infrastructure maintenance for disaster mitigation (pre-disaster) and repairs (post-disaster), including transportation networks, hospitals and clinics and communication networks	de Leeuw et al. (2012); Salam and Khan (2020); Chari et al. (2021); Rayawan et al. (2021); Damoah (2022); Negi (2022); Tasnim et al. (2022)
	Supply provision strategies	Developing supply provision strategies include stockpiling, prepositioning supplies, active supplier relationships, resource-sharing agreements, transportation and fast-track procurement	Acimovic and Goentzel (2016); Wilson et al. (2018); Velasquez et al. (2019); Minguito and Banluta (2023)
	The government as the responder	The government, typically through an agency like FEMA or the military, is often the first to act in the actual response to a disaster	Kovács and Spens (2007); Oloruntoba (2010); Apte and Heath (2011); John and Ramesh (2012); Swanson and Smith (2013)
Coordinator	Preparedness plans	Developing short and long-term action plans in the event of various disaster scenarios, including evacuation plans, risk assessment and community education	Oloruntoba (2010); Rodríguez-Espíndola et al. (2018)
	Authorization	Authorizing relief operations and resource use for various humanitarian actors	Mora-Ochomogo et al. (2016); Singh et al. (2018)
	Working with other stakeholders to minimize duplication of effort	Ensure that multiple actors are not working toward the same objectives without awareness of each other; ensure that actors and associated resources are spread out appropriately to impact the most victims	Roh et al. (2015); Abazari et al. (2022); Negi (2022); Xu et al. (2023)
	Commanding other actors	Command and control over other government actors (e.g., local, national and international agencies); responsibility for Unity of effort for government, NGO and private sector actors in the humanitarian response	Oloruntoba (2010); John and Ramesh (2012); Quarshie and Leuschner (2020)
	Orchestrating voluntary actors and NGOs	Organizing the efforts of voluntary actors and NGOs, not in a command and control sense but through softer forms of direction and guidance	Quarshie and Leuschner (2020); Agarwal et al. (2021); Rahman et al. (2022)
	Public–private partnerships	Creating public–private partnerships to facilitate interagency coordination through active relationship and contract management (e.g. coordination with commercial sellers to hold stocks of inventory for potential use in disasters)	Oloruntoba (2010); Swanson and Smith (2013); Wisetjindawat et al. (2014); Vega and Roussat (2015); Wilson et al. (2018)
	Community emphasis	Building local community trust through transparency, communication and information dissemination; leveraging local community organizations to connect with hard-to-reach populations that centralized/national organizations cannot reach; and reducing the cultural, geographical and institutional distance between governments and communities	Moore et al. (2009); Chen et al. (2013); Kunz et al. (2014); Lu et al. (2018); Rayawan et al. (2021)

Source(s): Table created by author