Table A2 Findings on firms’ traceability...

Table A2

Findings on firms’ traceability and MT-SSCM approaches

Case company	Examples on traceability + easy to trace − difficult to trace	Factors influencing traceability + enables traceability − hinders traceability	MT-SSCM approach
Textile SC
FF Textile Retail	Strong emphasis on supply chain traceability+ Cotton (traceable to yarn producer’s source or cotton field, if certified)	+ No intermediaries + A small number of suppliers + Suppliers willing to disclose supply chain information + Implementation of certifications + Traceability requirements from customer firms and consumers + Staff for traceability efforts − Weak power positions hinder the collection of supply chain information	Requires suppliers to commit to publicly disclose lower-tier suppliers during the supplier selection phase Requires information from direct suppliers about lower-tier suppliers Requires direct suppliers to notify of changes in lower-tier suppliers Visits lower-tier suppliers’ premises occasionally Relies mostly on an indirect MT-SSCM approach due to traceability challenges, which make it difficult to directly manage lower-tier suppliers Guides and influences suppliers in their material selections and use of certifications to enhance traceability Power position related to a direct supplier affects the ability to collect supply chain information and manage lower-tier suppliers Non-complex, vertically integrated supply chain structures facilitate traceability and lower-tier supplier management
FT Textile Products	Strong emphasis on supply chain traceability+ Cotton	+ No intermediaries + Short distance to raw material sources + Implementation of certifications + Traceability requirements from customers + Suppliers willing to disclose supply chain information − Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains (e.g. highly fragmented production) − A large number of suppliers − Suppliers lack the capability to collect and share supply chain information	Requires information from direct suppliers about lower-tier suppliers Requires direct suppliers to notify of changes in lower-tier suppliers Visits lower-tier suppliers’ premises occasionally Guides and influences suppliers in their material selections and use of certifications to enhance traceability
LT Yarn	+ Cotton (traceable to the country of origin or cotton field, if certified) − Polyester	+ A small number of suppliers + Limited variety of product categories, limited sources for raw materials + Implementation of certifications + Traceability requirements from customers + Suppliers willing to disclose supply chain information + Suppliers have the capability to collect and share supply chain information (e.g. European fibre suppliers) − Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains − Suppliers not willing to disclose supply chain information − Suppliers lack the capability to collect and share supply chain information	Focuses on building good relationships with direct suppliers to indirectly manage lower-tier suppliers Lower-tier supplier management not always relevant due to proximity to raw material sources
Passenger Traffic SC
FF Passenger Traffic	Depends on the product category + Food products + Machinery	+ No intermediaries + Short distance to raw material sources + Minimally processed products and raw materials + Regulatory pressure for traceability − Highly processed products and raw materials	Relies mostly on an indirect MT-SSCM approach Focuses on building good relationships with direct suppliers to indirectly manage lower-tier suppliers Engages direct suppliers to ensure that lower-tier suppliers comply with their own policies Engages with lower-tier suppliers in some critical categories where traceability allows it Requires information from direct suppliers about lower-tier suppliers Requires direct suppliers to notify of changes in lower-tier suppliers Approves lower-tier suppliers if a lower-tier supplier is significantly involved in production Avoids intermediaries and purchases directly from the source when possible to enhance traceability
FT Agri-food Wholesale	Depends on the product category + Private label raw materials (traceable to the source)+ Food products	+ Regulatory pressure for traceability + Traceability requirements from customer firms + Availability of information systems and tools − Intermediaries present − Highly processed products and raw materials − No regulatory pressure for traceability − Suppliers lack the capability to collect and share supply chain information	Focuses on understanding and mapping their supply chains, with specific targets for supply chain mapping of certain raw materials
LT Confiture	+ Packaging and industrial products − Agri-food products (e.g. hazelnut)	+ No intermediaries + Short distance to raw material sources + Availability of industry-wide traceability mechanisms + Availability of information systems and tools − Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains − A large number of suppliers − Highly processed products and raw materials − No regulatory pressure for traceability − Lack of information systems and tools (e.g. in hazelnut supply chains) − Suppliers not willing to disclose supply chain information − Suppliers lack the capability to collect and share supply chain information	Relies on an indirect MT-SSCM approach due to resource restrictions and difficulties in identifying lower-tier suppliers Focuses on building good relationships with direct suppliers to indirectly manage lower-tier suppliers, engaging and motivating direct suppliers to be transparent Requires information from direct suppliers about lower-tier suppliers Requires direct suppliers to notify of changes in lower-tier suppliers Works with third parties to aid in traceability due to complex supply chains Motivates and supports direct suppliers to improve supply chain information collection and sharing
LT Grain Mill 2	Depends on the raw material + Grain (traceable to the source)	+ No intermediaries + Short distance to raw material sources + Minimally processed products and raw materials + Regulatory pressure for traceability + Availability of industry-wide traceability mechanisms (e.g. grain passport) + Suppliers have the capability to collect and share supply chain information	Ensures, already during the supplier selection phase, that suppliers are willing to disclose information Lower-tier supplier management not always relevant due to proximity to raw material sources Facilitates supplier visits for their customers if needed
FT Meal Solutions	Depends on the product category + Strategic raw materials and high-volume products	+ No intermediaries + Short distance to raw material sources + Minimally processed products and raw materials + Regulatory pressure for traceability + Traceability requirements from customer firms + Suppliers have the capability to collect and share supply chain information − Intermediaries present − Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains − Insufficient staff for traceability efforts − Suppliers lack the capability to collect and share supply chain information	Relies mostly on an indirect MT-SSCM approach due to resource restrictions Ensures, already during the supplier selection phase, that suppliers are willing to disclose information Focuses on building good relationships with direct suppliers to indirectly manage lower-tier suppliers Requires information from direct suppliers about lower-tier suppliers Avoids intermediaries and purchases directly from the source when possible to enhance traceability Efforts are made to stay as close to the origin as possible due to traceability requirements from customer firms
Retail SC
FF General Retail	Strong emphasis on supply chain traceability 75%–80% of products can be traced very far + Private label raw materials (traceable to the source) − Components	+ No intermediaries + Short distance to the raw material sources + Minimally processed products and raw materials + Regulatory pressure for traceability + Availability of information systems and tools − A large number of suppliers − A large number of supply categories and products − Lack of information systems and tools − Suppliers lack the capability to collect and share supply chain information	Relies mostly on an indirect MT-SSCM approach due to resource restrictions Approves lower-tier suppliers through audits if a lower-tier supplier is significantly involved in production
FT Bakery	+ Volume products + Grain − Spices, seeds, additives − Small volumes bought from wholesalers and non-strategic suppliers	+ A small number of suppliers + Implementation of certifications + Regulatory pressure for traceability + Traceability requirements from customer firms + Suppliers have the capability to collect and share supply chain information − Intermediaries present − Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains − Highly processed products and raw materials	Relies mostly on an indirect MT-SSCM approach Approves lower-tier suppliers through audits if intermediaries are involved Guides and influences suppliers’ use of certifications to improve traceability Conducts traceability tests Examines production facilities and raw material sources for risk evaluation
LT Grain Mill 1	+ Grain (traceable to the farm)	+ No intermediaries + Short distance to raw material sources + A small number of suppliers + Minimally processed products and raw materials + Regulatory pressure for traceability + Availability of industry-wide traceability mechanisms (e.g. grain passport) + Traceability requirements from customer firms	Focuses on building good relationships with direct suppliers to indirectly manage lower-tier suppliers Avoids intermediaries and purchases directly from the source when possible to enhance traceability Lower-tier supplier management not always relevant due to proximity to raw material sources
LT Bakery Products	Country of origin usually traceable − Components	+ Traceability requirements from customer firms − Lack of information systems and tools − Suppliers not willing to disclose supply chain information − Suppliers lack the capability to collect and share supply chain information	Relies on indirect and don’t bother MT-SSCM approaches, as suppliers are not always willing to disclose their lower-tier suppliers Requires information from direct suppliers about lower-tier suppliers
FT Meat	Depends on product category + Products and raw materials required by regulation (e.g. animal and contact materials) − Components	+ No intermediaries + Short distance to raw material sources + Regulatory pressure for traceability	Direct lower-tier supplier management possible due to the proximity to the raw material source
LT Packaging	Strong emphasis on supply chain traceability + Plastic granulate (traceable to the source) − Spare parts, maintenance	+ No intermediaries + Minimally processed products and raw materials + Regulatory pressure for traceability + Traceability requirements from customer firms (e.g. traceability tests) + Availability of information systems and tools + Suppliers have the capability to collect and share supply chain information	Lower-tier supplier management not always relevant due to proximity to raw material sources Conducts traceability tests
FT Agri-food Production	Strong emphasis on supply chain traceability Has normally information about the processor and possible origin countries Traceability tests allow traceability to the source + Packaging − Spices	+ Minimally processed products and raw materials + Traceability requirements from customer firms (e.g. traceability tests) + Suppliers willing to disclose supply chain information + Strong power position enables supply chain information collection − Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains − A large number of suppliers − Highly processed products and raw materials − Lack of information systems and tools − Insufficient staff for traceability efforts − Suppliers not willing to disclose supply chain information	Relies mostly on an indirect MT-SSCM approach due to complex supply chains and resource restrictions Focuses on building good relationships with direct suppliers to indirectly manage lower-tier suppliers Requires information from direct suppliers about lower-tier suppliers Power position related to a direct supplier affects the ability to collect supply chain information and manage lower-tier suppliers Conducts traceability tests
Accommodation SC
FF Accommodation	Depends on the product or service + Often short and traceable service supply chains + Domestic fish and meat supply chains	+ No intermediaries + Short distance to raw material sources + Regulatory pressure for traceability + Implementation of certifications − Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains − Highly processed products and raw materials − Lack of information systems and tools − Suppliers not willing to disclose supply chain information	Relies mostly on an indirect MT-SSCM approach Focuses on building good relationships with direct suppliers to indirectly manage lower-tier suppliers, especially in complex supply chains Avoids intermediaries and purchases directly from the source when possible to enhance traceability Visits lower-tier suppliers’ premises occasionally
FT Service Provider	− Parts − Machinery	+ Short distance to raw material sources + Minimally processed products and raw materials + Suppliers willing to disclose supply chain information + Suppliers have the capability to collect and share supply chain information − Intermediaries present − Highly processed products and raw materials	Relies on an indirect MT-SSCM approach Focuses on building good relationships with direct suppliers to indirectly manage lower-tier suppliers
LT Chemical Products	Increasing emphasis on supply chain traceability + Certified products + Simple raw materials (e.g. domestic ethanol)	+ Short distance to raw material sources + Minimally processed products and raw materials + Implementation of certifications − Intermediaries present − Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains − A large number of suppliers − Highly processed products and raw materials − A large number of supply categories and products − Lack of information systems and tools − Suppliers not willing to disclose supply chain information − Suppliers lack the capability to collect and share supply chain information − A weak power position hinders supply chain information collection	Relies on an indirect MT-SSCM approach due to difficulties in managing multi-tier supply chain information Supply chain complexity makes it impossible to know all lower-tier suppliers and manage them effectively
FT Beverage Manufacturer	Depends on product category + Agri-food products (traceable to the source) − Sugar, chemical products, complex products	+ No intermediaries + Short distance to raw material sources + Minimally processed products and raw materials + Availability of industry-wide traceability mechanisms + Suppliers willing to disclose supply chain information + Suppliers have the capability to collect and share supply chain information − Intermediaries present − Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains − Highly processed products and raw materials	Collaborates with LT Beverages and LT Grain to enhance traceability and lower-tier supplier management Visiting lower-tier suppliers is possible because direct suppliers are willing to share information
LT Grain	+ Grain (traceable to the field) + Domestic products	+ No intermediaries + Short distance to raw material sources + Traceability requirements from customer firms (e.g. traceability tests) + Availability of information systems and tools + Suppliers willing to disclose supply chain information + Suppliers have the capability to collect and share supply chain information − Suppliers not willing to disclose supply chain information	Lower-tier supplier management not always relevant due to proximity to raw material sources Avoids intermediaries and purchases directly from the source when possible to enhance traceability Transparency projects with FT Beverage Manufacturer allow consumers to track raw materials Conducts traceability tests
LT Beverages	Strong emphasis on supply chain traceability Depends on product category + Agri-food raw materials	+ Limited variety of product categories + Minimally processed products and raw materials + Implementation of certifications + A strong power position enables supply chain information collection − Intermediaries present − Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains − No regulatory pressure for traceability − Lack of information systems and tools − Insufficient staff for traceability efforts − Suppliers not willing to disclose supply chain information − Weak power positions hinder the collection of supply chain information	Requires information from direct suppliers about lower-tier suppliers Works with third parties to enhance traceability and lower-tier supplier management Power position related to a direct supplier affects the ability to collect supply chain information and manage lower-tier suppliers Has discarded a supplier due to their unwillingness to disclose supply chain information
FT Construction	Able to trace materials to factories and wholesalers + Technological equipment (e.g. air supply units, solar panels)	+ Regulatory pressure for traceability + Traceability requirements from customer firms − Intermediaries present − Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains − Suppliers not willing to disclose supply chain information	Avoids intermediaries and purchases directly from the source when possible to enhance traceability
Food Service SC
FF Food Service	Strong emphasis on supply chain traceability + Food products + Volume products − Small volumes (e.g. vinyl gloves, trash bags) − Materials with many components	+ Short distance to raw material sources + Minimally processed products and raw materials + Staff for traceability efforts + Suppliers willing to disclose supply chain information − Intermediaries present − Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains − Highly processed products and raw materials	Traceability and direct lower-tier supplier management possible due to non-complex supply chains Visits lower-tier suppliers’ premises regularly Willing to invest in traceability resources to be able to manage lower-tier suppliers
FT Agri-food Trade	+ Agri-food products (traceable to a bulk supplier or farm)	+ No intermediaries + Short distance to raw material sources + Regulatory pressure for traceability + Traceability requirements from customer firms + A strong power position enables supply chain information collection	Requires information from direct suppliers about lower-tier suppliers Regulatory pressure for traceability eases traceability and lower-tier supplier management Conducts traceability tests
LT Vegetables	Strong emphasis on supply chain traceability Familiar with farmers + Products and raw materials required by regulation	+ No intermediaries + Short distance to raw material sources + Regulatory pressure for traceability + Availability of industry-wide traceability mechanisms + Availability of information systems and tools + Suppliers have the capability to collect and share supply chain information − Suppliers lack the capability to collect and share supply chain information	Motivates and supports direct suppliers to improve supply chain information collection and sharing Lower-tier supplier management not always relevant due to proximity to raw material sources

Case company	Examples on traceability+ easy to trace− difficult to trace	Factors influencing traceability+ enables traceability− hinders traceability	MT-SSCM approach
Textile SC
FF Textile Retail	Strong emphasis on supply chain traceability+ Cotton (traceable to yarn producer’s source or cotton field, if certified)	+ No intermediaries+ A small number of suppliers+ Suppliers willing to disclose supply chain information+ Implementation of certifications+ Traceability requirements from customer firms and consumers+ Staff for traceability efforts− Weak power positions hinder the collection of supply chain information	Requires suppliers to commit to publicly disclose lower-tier suppliers during the supplier selection phase Requires information from direct suppliers about lower-tier suppliers Requires direct suppliers to notify of changes in lower-tier suppliers Visits lower-tier suppliers’ premises occasionally Relies mostly on an indirect MT-SSCM approach due to traceability challenges, which make it difficult to directly manage lower-tier suppliers Guides and influences suppliers in their material selections and use of certifications to enhance traceability Power position related to a direct supplier affects the ability to collect supply chain information and manage lower-tier suppliers Non-complex, vertically integrated supply chain structures facilitate traceability and lower-tier supplier management
FT Textile Products	Strong emphasis on supply chain traceability+ Cotton	+ No intermediaries+ Short distance to raw material sources+ Implementation of certifications+ Traceability requirements from customers+ Suppliers willing to disclose supply chain information− Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains (e.g. highly fragmented production)− A large number of suppliers− Suppliers lack the capability to collect and share supply chain information	Requires information from direct suppliers about lower-tier suppliers Requires direct suppliers to notify of changes in lower-tier suppliers Visits lower-tier suppliers’ premises occasionally Guides and influences suppliers in their material selections and use of certifications to enhance traceability
LT Yarn	+ Cotton (traceable to the country of origin or cotton field, if certified)− Polyester	+ A small number of suppliers+ Limited variety of product categories, limited sources for raw materials+ Implementation of certifications+ Traceability requirements from customers+ Suppliers willing to disclose supply chain information+ Suppliers have the capability to collect and share supply chain information (e.g. European fibre suppliers)− Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains− Suppliers not willing to disclose supply chain information− Suppliers lack the capability to collect and share supply chain information	Focuses on building good relationships with direct suppliers to indirectly manage lower-tier suppliers Lower-tier supplier management not always relevant due to proximity to raw material sources
Passenger Traffic SC
FF Passenger Traffic	Depends on the product category + Food products+ Machinery	+ No intermediaries+ Short distance to raw material sources+ Minimally processed products and raw materials+ Regulatory pressure for traceability− Highly processed products and raw materials	Relies mostly on an indirect MT-SSCM approach Focuses on building good relationships with direct suppliers to indirectly manage lower-tier suppliers Engages direct suppliers to ensure that lower-tier suppliers comply with their own policies Engages with lower-tier suppliers in some critical categories where traceability allows it Requires information from direct suppliers about lower-tier suppliers Requires direct suppliers to notify of changes in lower-tier suppliers Approves lower-tier suppliers if a lower-tier supplier is significantly involved in production Avoids intermediaries and purchases directly from the source when possible to enhance traceability
FT Agri-food Wholesale	Depends on the product category + Private label raw materials (traceable to the source)+ Food products	+ Regulatory pressure for traceability+ Traceability requirements from customer firms+ Availability of information systems and tools− Intermediaries present− Highly processed products and raw materials− No regulatory pressure for traceability− Suppliers lack the capability to collect and share supply chain information	Focuses on understanding and mapping their supply chains, with specific targets for supply chain mapping of certain raw materials
LT Confiture	+ Packaging and industrial products− Agri-food products (e.g. hazelnut)	+ No intermediaries+ Short distance to raw material sources+ Availability of industry-wide traceability mechanisms+ Availability of information systems and tools− Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains− A large number of suppliers− Highly processed products and raw materials− No regulatory pressure for traceability− Lack of information systems and tools (e.g. in hazelnut supply chains)− Suppliers not willing to disclose supply chain information− Suppliers lack the capability to collect and share supply chain information	Relies on an indirect MT-SSCM approach due to resource restrictions and difficulties in identifying lower-tier suppliers Focuses on building good relationships with direct suppliers to indirectly manage lower-tier suppliers, engaging and motivating direct suppliers to be transparent Requires information from direct suppliers about lower-tier suppliers Requires direct suppliers to notify of changes in lower-tier suppliers Works with third parties to aid in traceability due to complex supply chains Motivates and supports direct suppliers to improve supply chain information collection and sharing
LT Grain Mill 2	Depends on the raw material + Grain (traceable to the source)	+ No intermediaries+ Short distance to raw material sources+ Minimally processed products and raw materials+ Regulatory pressure for traceability+ Availability of industry-wide traceability mechanisms (e.g. grain passport)+ Suppliers have the capability to collect and share supply chain information	Ensures, already during the supplier selection phase, that suppliers are willing to disclose information Lower-tier supplier management not always relevant due to proximity to raw material sources Facilitates supplier visits for their customers if needed
FT Meal Solutions	Depends on the product category + Strategic raw materials and high-volume products	+ No intermediaries+ Short distance to raw material sources+ Minimally processed products and raw materials+ Regulatory pressure for traceability+ Traceability requirements from customer firms+ Suppliers have the capability to collect and share supply chain information− Intermediaries present− Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains− Insufficient staff for traceability efforts− Suppliers lack the capability to collect and share supply chain information	Relies mostly on an indirect MT-SSCM approach due to resource restrictions Ensures, already during the supplier selection phase, that suppliers are willing to disclose information Focuses on building good relationships with direct suppliers to indirectly manage lower-tier suppliers Requires information from direct suppliers about lower-tier suppliers Avoids intermediaries and purchases directly from the source when possible to enhance traceability Efforts are made to stay as close to the origin as possible due to traceability requirements from customer firms
Retail SC
FF General Retail	Strong emphasis on supply chain traceability 75%–80% of products can be traced very far + Private label raw materials (traceable to the source)− Components	+ No intermediaries+ Short distance to the raw material sources+ Minimally processed products and raw materials+ Regulatory pressure for traceability+ Availability of information systems and tools− A large number of suppliers− A large number of supply categories and products− Lack of information systems and tools− Suppliers lack the capability to collect and share supply chain information	Relies mostly on an indirect MT-SSCM approach due to resource restrictions Approves lower-tier suppliers through audits if a lower-tier supplier is significantly involved in production
FT Bakery	+ Volume products+ Grain− Spices, seeds, additives− Small volumes bought from wholesalers and non-strategic suppliers	+ A small number of suppliers+ Implementation of certifications+ Regulatory pressure for traceability+ Traceability requirements from customer firms+ Suppliers have the capability to collect and share supply chain information− Intermediaries present− Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains− Highly processed products and raw materials	Relies mostly on an indirect MT-SSCM approach Approves lower-tier suppliers through audits if intermediaries are involved Guides and influences suppliers’ use of certifications to improve traceability Conducts traceability tests Examines production facilities and raw material sources for risk evaluation
LT Grain Mill 1	+ Grain (traceable to the farm)	+ No intermediaries+ Short distance to raw material sources+ A small number of suppliers+ Minimally processed products and raw materials+ Regulatory pressure for traceability+ Availability of industry-wide traceability mechanisms (e.g. grain passport)+ Traceability requirements from customer firms	Focuses on building good relationships with direct suppliers to indirectly manage lower-tier suppliers Avoids intermediaries and purchases directly from the source when possible to enhance traceability Lower-tier supplier management not always relevant due to proximity to raw material sources
LT Bakery Products	Country of origin usually traceable − Components	+ Traceability requirements from customer firms− Lack of information systems and tools− Suppliers not willing to disclose supply chain information− Suppliers lack the capability to collect and share supply chain information	Relies on indirect and don’t bother MT-SSCM approaches, as suppliers are not always willing to disclose their lower-tier suppliers Requires information from direct suppliers about lower-tier suppliers
FT Meat	Depends on product category + Products and raw materials required by regulation (e.g. animal and contact materials)− Components	+ No intermediaries+ Short distance to raw material sources+ Regulatory pressure for traceability	Direct lower-tier supplier management possible due to the proximity to the raw material source
LT Packaging	Strong emphasis on supply chain traceability + Plastic granulate (traceable to the source)− Spare parts, maintenance	+ No intermediaries+ Minimally processed products and raw materials+ Regulatory pressure for traceability+ Traceability requirements from customer firms (e.g. traceability tests)+ Availability of information systems and tools+ Suppliers have the capability to collect and share supply chain information	Lower-tier supplier management not always relevant due to proximity to raw material sources Conducts traceability tests
FT Agri-food Production	Strong emphasis on supply chain traceability Has normally information about the processor and possible origin countries Traceability tests allow traceability to the source + Packaging− Spices	+ Minimally processed products and raw materials+ Traceability requirements from customer firms (e.g. traceability tests)+ Suppliers willing to disclose supply chain information+ Strong power position enables supply chain information collection− Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains− A large number of suppliers− Highly processed products and raw materials− Lack of information systems and tools− Insufficient staff for traceability efforts− Suppliers not willing to disclose supply chain information	Relies mostly on an indirect MT-SSCM approach due to complex supply chains and resource restrictions Focuses on building good relationships with direct suppliers to indirectly manage lower-tier suppliers Requires information from direct suppliers about lower-tier suppliers Power position related to a direct supplier affects the ability to collect supply chain information and manage lower-tier suppliers Conducts traceability tests
Accommodation SC
FF Accommodation	Depends on the product or service + Often short and traceable service supply chains+ Domestic fish and meat supply chains	+ No intermediaries+ Short distance to raw material sources+ Regulatory pressure for traceability+ Implementation of certifications− Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains− Highly processed products and raw materials− Lack of information systems and tools− Suppliers not willing to disclose supply chain information	Relies mostly on an indirect MT-SSCM approach Focuses on building good relationships with direct suppliers to indirectly manage lower-tier suppliers, especially in complex supply chains Avoids intermediaries and purchases directly from the source when possible to enhance traceability Visits lower-tier suppliers’ premises occasionally
FT Service Provider	− Parts− Machinery	+ Short distance to raw material sources+ Minimally processed products and raw materials+ Suppliers willing to disclose supply chain information+ Suppliers have the capability to collect and share supply chain information− Intermediaries present− Highly processed products and raw materials	Relies on an indirect MT-SSCM approach Focuses on building good relationships with direct suppliers to indirectly manage lower-tier suppliers
LT Chemical Products	Increasing emphasis on supply chain traceability + Certified products+ Simple raw materials (e.g. domestic ethanol)	+ Short distance to raw material sources+ Minimally processed products and raw materials+ Implementation of certifications− Intermediaries present− Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains− A large number of suppliers− Highly processed products and raw materials− A large number of supply categories and products− Lack of information systems and tools− Suppliers not willing to disclose supply chain information− Suppliers lack the capability to collect and share supply chain information− A weak power position hinders supply chain information collection	Relies on an indirect MT-SSCM approach due to difficulties in managing multi-tier supply chain information Supply chain complexity makes it impossible to know all lower-tier suppliers and manage them effectively
FT Beverage Manufacturer	Depends on product category + Agri-food products (traceable to the source)− Sugar, chemical products, complex products	+ No intermediaries+ Short distance to raw material sources+ Minimally processed products and raw materials+ Availability of industry-wide traceability mechanisms+ Suppliers willing to disclose supply chain information+ Suppliers have the capability to collect and share supply chain information− Intermediaries present− Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains− Highly processed products and raw materials	Collaborates with LT Beverages and LT Grain to enhance traceability and lower-tier supplier management Visiting lower-tier suppliers is possible because direct suppliers are willing to share information
LT Grain	+ Grain (traceable to the field)+ Domestic products	+ No intermediaries+ Short distance to raw material sources+ Traceability requirements from customer firms (e.g. traceability tests)+ Availability of information systems and tools+ Suppliers willing to disclose supply chain information+ Suppliers have the capability to collect and share supply chain information− Suppliers not willing to disclose supply chain information	Lower-tier supplier management not always relevant due to proximity to raw material sources Avoids intermediaries and purchases directly from the source when possible to enhance traceability Transparency projects with FT Beverage Manufacturer allow consumers to track raw materials Conducts traceability tests
LT Beverages	Strong emphasis on supply chain traceability Depends on product category + Agri-food raw materials	+ Limited variety of product categories+ Minimally processed products and raw materials+ Implementation of certifications+ A strong power position enables supply chain information collection− Intermediaries present− Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains− No regulatory pressure for traceability− Lack of information systems and tools− Insufficient staff for traceability efforts− Suppliers not willing to disclose supply chain information− Weak power positions hinder the collection of supply chain information	Requires information from direct suppliers about lower-tier suppliers Works with third parties to enhance traceability and lower-tier supplier management Power position related to a direct supplier affects the ability to collect supply chain information and manage lower-tier suppliers Has discarded a supplier due to their unwillingness to disclose supply chain information
FT Construction	Able to trace materials to factories and wholesalers + Technological equipment (e.g. air supply units, solar panels)	+ Regulatory pressure for traceability+ Traceability requirements from customer firms− Intermediaries present− Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains− Suppliers not willing to disclose supply chain information	Avoids intermediaries and purchases directly from the source when possible to enhance traceability
Food Service SC
FF Food Service	Strong emphasis on supply chain traceability + Food products+ Volume products− Small volumes (e.g. vinyl gloves, trash bags)− Materials with many components	+ Short distance to raw material sources+ Minimally processed products and raw materials+ Staff for traceability efforts+ Suppliers willing to disclose supply chain information− Intermediaries present− Long, complex and geographically distant supply chains− Highly processed products and raw materials	Traceability and direct lower-tier supplier management possible due to non-complex supply chains Visits lower-tier suppliers’ premises regularly Willing to invest in traceability resources to be able to manage lower-tier suppliers
FT Agri-food Trade	+ Agri-food products (traceable to a bulk supplier or farm)	+ No intermediaries+ Short distance to raw material sources+ Regulatory pressure for traceability+ Traceability requirements from customer firms+ A strong power position enables supply chain information collection	Requires information from direct suppliers about lower-tier suppliers Regulatory pressure for traceability eases traceability and lower-tier supplier management Conducts traceability tests
LT Vegetables	Strong emphasis on supply chain traceability Familiar with farmers + Products and raw materials required by regulation	+ No intermediaries+ Short distance to raw material sources+ Regulatory pressure for traceability+ Availability of industry-wide traceability mechanisms+ Availability of information systems and tools+ Suppliers have the capability to collect and share supply chain information− Suppliers lack the capability to collect and share supply chain information	Motivates and supports direct suppliers to improve supply chain information collection and sharing Lower-tier supplier management not always relevant due to proximity to raw material sources

Source(s): Authors’ own work

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