Variable descriptions
| Variable | Description | Data source |
|---|---|---|
| ABS_KDA | The absolute value of the ROA-matched discretionary accrual proxy proposed by Kothari et al. (2005) | Vietstock |
| KDA | The ROA-matched discretionary accrual proxy proposed by Kothari et al. (2005) | Vietstock |
| Income-increasing KDA | The income-increasing component of KDA (KDA >0) | Vietstock |
| Income-decreasing KDA | The income-decreasing component of KDA (KDA <0) | Vietstock |
| ABS_JDA | The absolute value of the discretionary accrual proxy proposed by Jones (1991) | Vietstock |
| ABS_DDA | The absolute value of the Modified Jones' discretionary accrual proxy proposed by Dechow et al. (1995) | Vietstock |
| AB_DEXP | Abnormal discretionary expense proxy (Roychowdhury, 2006) | Vietstock |
| AB_PROD | Abnormal production cost proxy (Roychowdhury, 2006) | Vietstock |
| REM | Real-activities earnings management proxy, calculated following Cohen and Zarowin (2010): AB_PROD + (−1)*AB_DEXP | Vietstock |
| ACI | The new-based anti-corruption index of Vietnam | Hoang et al. (2022a) |
| Firm size | Natural logarithm of total assets | Vietstock |
| Financial leverage | Debt-to-assets ratio | Vietstock |
| Profitability | Return-on-asset ratio, calculated by scaling net income/loss by average total assets | Vietstock |
| Fixed assets | Net Property, Plant and Equipment scaled by total assets | Vietstock |
| Growth | Change in firm sales scaled by the preceding period's sales | Vietstock |
| Big4 auditor | Dummy variable that equals one if the auditor firm is a Big4 auditor firm, zero otherwise | Vietstock |
| Private | Dummy variable that equals one if there is no state ownership in the firm, zero otherwise | Vietstock |
| State | Dummy variable that equals one if there is five percent or more of state ownership in the firm, zero otherwise | Vietstock |
| Informal charges | Dummy variable that equals one if the sub-index of informal charges (of the province the firm locates in) is higher than its cross-sectional median, zero otherwise. The index is included in the Provincial Competitiveness Index Survey | Provincial Competitiveness Index Survey |
| Variable | Description | Data source |
|---|---|---|
| ABS_KDA | The absolute value of the ROA-matched discretionary accrual proxy proposed by | Vietstock |
| KDA | The ROA-matched discretionary accrual proxy proposed by | Vietstock |
| Income-increasing KDA | The income-increasing component of KDA (KDA >0) | Vietstock |
| Income-decreasing KDA | The income-decreasing component of KDA (KDA <0) | Vietstock |
| ABS_JDA | The absolute value of the discretionary accrual proxy proposed by | Vietstock |
| ABS_DDA | The absolute value of the Modified Jones' discretionary accrual proxy proposed by | Vietstock |
| AB_DEXP | Abnormal discretionary expense proxy ( | Vietstock |
| AB_PROD | Abnormal production cost proxy ( | Vietstock |
| Real-activities earnings management proxy, calculated following | Vietstock | |
| The new-based anti-corruption index of Vietnam | ||
| Firm size | Natural logarithm of total assets | Vietstock |
| Financial leverage | Debt-to-assets ratio | Vietstock |
| Profitability | Return-on-asset ratio, calculated by scaling net income/loss by average total assets | Vietstock |
| Fixed assets | Net Property, Plant and Equipment scaled by total assets | Vietstock |
| Growth | Change in firm sales scaled by the preceding period's sales | Vietstock |
| Big4 auditor | Dummy variable that equals one if the auditor firm is a Big4 auditor firm, zero otherwise | Vietstock |
| Private | Dummy variable that equals one if there is no state ownership in the firm, zero otherwise | Vietstock |
| State | Dummy variable that equals one if there is five percent or more of state ownership in the firm, zero otherwise | Vietstock |
| Informal charges | Dummy variable that equals one if the sub-index of informal charges (of the province the firm locates in) is higher than its cross-sectional median, zero otherwise. The index is included in the Provincial Competitiveness Index Survey | Provincial Competitiveness Index Survey |
Note(s): This table provides definitions of all variables used in the research
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