Table 1 Key paradigms and their...

Table 1

Key paradigms and their implications for visual data – updated

	“Positivist worldviews”		“Constructivist/constructionist worldviews”
	Positivism	Postpositivism	Critical theory	Constructivism	Participatory
Ontology	[naïve] realism	[critical] realism	[critical/historical/value-laden] realism	relativism	Participatory/experiential/co-constructed reality
Nature of reality	[naïve] realism	[critical] realism	[critical/historical/value-laden] realism	relativism	Participatory/experiential/co-constructed reality
Epistemology	Objectivist/findings perceived as true	Modified objectivist/findings perceived as probably true	Subjectivist transactional/value mediated findings	Subjectivist transactional/co-created findings	Critical inter(subjectivity)/practical knowing/epistemic participation
Relationship of the knower and known	Objectivist/findings perceived as true	Modified objectivist/findings perceived as probably true	Subjectivist transactional/value mediated findings	Subjectivist transactional/co-created findings
Methodology	Experimental, verification of hypotheses	Modified experimental	Dialogic and transformative	Hermeneutical and dialectic	Collaborative action inquiry
Theory and principles of methods	Experimental, verification of hypotheses	Modified experimental	Dialogic and transformative	Hermeneutical and dialectic	Collaborative action inquiry
Methods	Predominantly, if not exclusively, quantitative	Often quantitative, sometimes mixed methods	Predominantly qualitative	Predominantly qualitative	Predominantly qualitative
Tools of inquiry	Predominantly, if not exclusively, quantitative	Often quantitative, sometimes mixed methods	Predominantly qualitative	Predominantly qualitative	Predominantly qualitative
Axiology	Distance between the researchers and the researched; objective knowledge	Researchers aim to comprehend truth as closely as possible and based on it construct knowledge	Researchers aim to create knowledge which can improve, policies, institutions and societies	Researchers aim to create emancipatory knowledge in the longer, rather than immediate, term	Relational and practical knowing, collaborative decision making aimed towards human flourishing
What is valuable; type(s) of intrinsically valuable knowledge
Implications for visual data	Visual data tends to be perceived as reality captured in an image, relied on to create objective knowledge		Visual data tends to be perceived as a representation of reality(ies) of the person(s) who created or experienced these visuals within the contexts of that time, space and (inter)subjectivities

	“Positivist worldviews”		“Constructivist/constructionist worldviews”
	Positivism	Postpositivism	Critical theory	Constructivism	Participatory
Ontology	[naïve] realism	[critical] realism	[critical/historical/value-laden] realism	relativism	Participatory/experiential/co-constructed reality
Nature of reality	[naïve] realism	[critical] realism	[critical/historical/value-laden] realism	relativism	Participatory/experiential/co-constructed reality
Epistemology	Objectivist/findings perceived as true	Modified objectivist/findings perceived as probably true	Subjectivist transactional/value mediated findings	Subjectivist transactional/co-created findings	Critical inter(subjectivity)/practical knowing/epistemic participation
Relationship of the knower and known	Objectivist/findings perceived as true	Modified objectivist/findings perceived as probably true	Subjectivist transactional/value mediated findings	Subjectivist transactional/co-created findings
Methodology	Experimental, verification of hypotheses	Modified experimental	Dialogic and transformative	Hermeneutical and dialectic	Collaborative action inquiry
Theory and principles of methods	Experimental, verification of hypotheses	Modified experimental	Dialogic and transformative	Hermeneutical and dialectic	Collaborative action inquiry
Methods	Predominantly, if not exclusively, quantitative	Often quantitative, sometimes mixed methods	Predominantly qualitative	Predominantly qualitative	Predominantly qualitative
Tools of inquiry	Predominantly, if not exclusively, quantitative	Often quantitative, sometimes mixed methods	Predominantly qualitative	Predominantly qualitative	Predominantly qualitative
Axiology	Distance between the researchers and the researched; objective knowledge	Researchers aim to comprehend truth as closely as possible and based on it construct knowledge	Researchers aim to create knowledge which can improve, policies, institutions and societies	Researchers aim to create emancipatory knowledge in the longer, rather than immediate, term	Relational and practical knowing, collaborative decision making aimed towards human flourishing
What is valuable; type(s) of intrinsically valuable knowledge
Implications for visual data	Visual data tends to be perceived as reality captured in an image, relied on to create objective knowledge		Visual data tends to be perceived as a representation of reality(ies) of the person(s) who created or experienced these visuals within the contexts of that time, space and (inter)subjectivities

Source(s): Secondary rows 1–5 ontology, epistemology, methodology, methods and axiology adapted from Guba (1990), Riley and Love (2000); Guba and Lincoln (2005); Lincoln et al. (2018, 2024); Heron and Reason (1997); Row 6 implications for visual data adapted from Rakić (2012)

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