Table 1

Fake news topics

Dataset themeFake news topics
Russian invasion of Ukraine
  • -

    Third World War narrative

  • -

    Biological disaster scenarios

  • -

    Attacks on the Ukrainian army and President Zelensky

  • -

    Denial of conflict authenticity

  • -

    Disinformation about refugees

  • -

    Undermining territorial integrity and sovereignty

  • -

    Military and security threat exaggeration

  • -

    Human rights violation claims

  • -

    Internal governance disinformation

  • -

    Ukrainian counter-offensive distortion

  • -

    Delegitimizing the Ukrainian government

  • -

    Stereotyping Ukrainian citizens negatively

  • -

    Justifying Russian invasion

  • -

    Attacks on NATO and Ukraine’s Allies

  • -

    Undermining international alliances

  • -

    Attacks on Ukrainian Armed Forces

  • -

    Religious and cultural division exploitation

  • -

    Economic crisis exaggeration in Ukraine

  • -

    Claims of reduced Western military support

  • -

    Demoralization campaigns targeting the Ukrainian population

  • -

    NATO/US sending Bulgaria to war with Russia

  • -

    Ukraine is portrayed as corrupt and undeserving of help

Climate change
  • -

    Solar activity is responsible for climate change

  • -

    Misleading CO2 role narratives

  • -

    Denial of global warming and ice melting

  • -

    Electric vehicle disinformation and criticism

  • -

    Climate and agricultural disinformation

  • -

    Attacks on the EU Green Deal

  • -

    Discredit Greta Thunberg

  • -

    Volcano activity is the reason for climate change

  • -

    Chemtrails and geoengineering conspiracy theories

  • -

    Wind turbine conspiracy theories

  • -

    General climate conspiracy theories

  • -

    Manipulation of scientific data

  • -

    Scepticism of scientific consensus

  • -

    Denial of climate change

  • -

    Discrediting renewable sources of energy

  • -

    Misleading policy impact narratives

  • -

    Undermining European environmental action

  • -

    Greenwashing accusations

  • -

    Economic alarmism with regard to climate policies

  • -

    Political climate disinformation

  • -

    “Climate change is a hoax” claims

  • -

    “EU is committing suicide with the Green Deal”

  • -

    Bulgarian politicians depicted as servile to the EU

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