Table 1

Variable description and data sources

VariableDefinition and measurementData source
Deforestation (D)Deforestation including forest loss is calculated as the annual change (reduction) in the square kilometre of land that is covered by forestAuthor’s calculation using FAOSTAT and Global Forest Watch
Income (Y)Income is proxy economic activities. GDP per capita is used to account for economic activity per person. GDP per capita is gross domestic product (GDP) divided by midyear population. It is measured in current United States Dollars (USD)World Bank World Development Indicators
Natural resource rent (N)Natural resource rent is to account for farming, logging, mining and other natural resource activities which affect the forests. It is total natural resources’ rents which are the sum of oil rents, natural gas rents, coal rents (hard and soft), mineral rents and forest rents. It is measured as a percentage of GDPWorld Bank World Development Indicators
Renewable energy consumption (R)Renewable energy consumption (% of total final energy consumption). It is measured as share of renewables (dominated by biomass as in Sierra Leone) in total energy consumptionWorld Bank World Development Indicators
Institutional quality (I)Efficiency and effectiveness of public institutions. It includes rules of law, control of corruption, regulatory quality, government effectiveness and political stability. The measure ranges from 0 to 1 (worst to best)University of Gothenburg Quality of Governance Institute
Total population (P)Total number of residents in the country regardless of nationality per year. To capture both rural and urban population as they both affect the forestWorld Bank World Development Indicators
Source(s): Global Forest Watch (2025), Teorell et al. (2025) and World Bank (2024) 

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