Table 3

Grouping barriers into major themes

Major themeKey sub-themesExample studies
Socio-Cultural barriersPatriarchal norms, cultural resistance, gender stereotypes, the stigma around MHM (menstrual hygiene management), household-centred empowerment limiting broader agencyAhmed (2019), Al Fara (2024), Clissold et al. (2020), Richter and Flowers (2008), Wilbur et al. (2022) 
Institutional and structural barriersUnderrepresentation in leadership, gender bias in logistics hiring, lack of gender-sensitive logistics and procurement practices, exclusion from aid governance, low NGO integrationKovács and Tatham (2010), Kovács et al. (2011), IRC and UNHCR (2020), Wolff (2024) 
Economic and livelihood barriersEconomic exclusion post-displacement, lack of market access, precarious volunteer work, barriers to women’s entrepreneurship, food insecurityMuro (2016), Castañeda Carney et al. (2020), Okeke-Ihejirika et al. (2022) 
Health, safety and well-being barriersInadequate reproductive health services, risks of harassment and GBV, insecurity for female health workers, poor support for breastfeeding mothersHirani et al. (2021), Schmitt et al. (2017), Yamout et al. (2024) 
Source(s): Authors’ own work

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