Table 1. LGBTQIA Influence levels and... | Emerald Publishing

Table 1.

LGBTQIA+ Influence levels and international business perspectives

Level	Illustrative examples	Examples of theories related to IB	Guiding research questions for IB
Global/ Supranational	World Bank set of proposed indicators for the LGBTI Inclusion Index (Badgett and Sell, 2018)	Institutional theory (i.e. neo-institutional theory, institutional economics, supranational institutions) Varieties of institutional systems Political science theories (i.e. geopolitics, political economy) International relations theories (i.e. diplomacy, human rights) Wickedness theory (i.e. wicked problems, grand challenges)	1. What role do supranational institutions play in the global diffusion of LGBTQIA+ rights, policies and issues?2. What is the relationship between supranational/national institutions and MNEs when it comes to LGBTQIA+ rights?3. What are the specific geopolitical aspects of LGBTQIA+ rights and issues?4. How do global LGBTQIA+ issues translate into specific types of IB risks, challenges and opportunities?5. How does the omission of the LGBTQIA+ community limit identification of both challenges and opportunities around global education, housing, healthcare, etc.?
Regional	Regional cultural expectations or LGBTQIA+ laws (e.g. Article 21 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union or the European Commission LGBTIQ Equality Strategy 2020–2025)	Institutional theory (i.e. neo-institutional theory, comparative capitalism) Regional studies	1. What is the link between competing institutional arrangements and ideology, religion and cultural differences between regions (and even sometimes global cities)?2. How do MNEs manage tensions when the MNE’s internal policies expectations differ from those of regional governing bodies?3. What is the impact of regional institutions (i.e. law, cultural values) on various aspects of mobility (i.e. people, capital, knowledge)?4. How are LGBTQIA+ rights and policies influenced by regional politics, histories and cultures?
Country/ Society	Societal differences in acceptance of LGBTQIA+ issues and communities (e.g. Poushter and Kent, 2020)	Institutional theory (i.e. institutional logics, institutional fields, historical institutionalism) Social identity theory (inter-group dynamics) Socio-Cognitive theory Social movements Linguistic theories Theories of social cohesion Cultural theories (i.e. cultural values)	1. To what degree do MNEs adapt LGBTQIA+ policies based on differing societal expectations where they operate?2. How do stakeholder expectations differ regarding corporate LGBTQIA+ policies for groups and/or countries?3. How do specific institutional logics and various institutional fields influence MNE staffing choices with regards to LGBTQIA+ and non-LGBTQIA+ employees?4. How do historical and institutional legacies shape LGBTQIA+ institutional frameworks and outcomes?5. To what extent are LGBTQIA+ issue driven by identity politics, how and why?6. How does language shape the social cognition and societal perceptions/judgements of the LGBTQIA+ community and/or specific Sub-groups?7. What specific cultural, historical, colonial and/or religious nuances influence societal attitudes towards the LGBTQIA+ community and/or specific Sub-groups?
Within-Country regional	US state differences in LGBT practice support (e.g. Gardberg et al., 2023)	Geography theories (i.e. political geography, economic geography, geography of migration) Human rights	1. How do differences in LGBTQIA+ policies within MNEs’ host countries influence MNE policy adoption?2. To what extent are LGBTQIA+ policy differences at a Sub-national level determined by rural-urban divides, regional cultures and other place-based determinants (i.e. language, religion, education, colonial influence)?3. What kind of industry-specific differences exist in LGBTQIA+ policies and practices relevant to MNEs?
Organization/ Firm	Human Rights Campaign Corporate Equality Index (e.g. Kaplan and Berkley, 2021)	Resource-based view of the firm and resource dependence OLI paradigm Strategy tripod/institution-based view for the firm Dynamic capabilities theory Stakeholder theory Signaling theory Cultural theories (i.e. cultural distance, cultural frictions)	1. To what degree do MNEs create a global LGBTQIA+ identity when operating in diverse environments?2. How do MNEs manage cultural frictions and overcome physical distance across different host markets when it comes to LGBTQIA+ issues?3. To what extent do MNEs engage in LGBTQIA+ issues as a form of corporate social responsibility and corporate political activity?4. To what extent do MNEs pursue LGBTQIA+ issues from a business case perspective or as a social justice cause?5. To what extend do MNEs or their corporate and business brands engage in corporate activism or act as social change agents and why?6. How are MNEs LGBTQIA+ policies and practices linked to its corporate reputation and public trust?7. How does a CEO’s LGBTQIA+ attitude/identity influence organizational LGBTQIA+ policies and practices?
Within-Firm/ Team level	Effectiveness and dynamics of global (virtual) teams in terms of identity-, resource- and knowledge-based subgroups (e.g. Gilson et al., 2015)	Social identity theory (i.e. identity work, intra-group dynamics and inter-group conflict) Social categorization theory Institutional theory (i.e. institutional logics, institutional fields) Faultline theory Contact theory	1. How do LGBTQIA+ policies fit within existing DEI policies and how do they shape specific inter-group dynamics within organizations?2. How do LGBTQIA+ issues impact team dynamics in cross-cultural settings?3. How do firm LGBTQIA+ policies impact the operations of global virtual teams?4. How do org. culture and inter-group dynamics interact in a LGBTQIA+ context?5. How do specific LGBTQIA+ Sub-groups produce and reproduce specific institutional fields across different subsidiaries, organisational units and/or teams?
Individual(s)	Global careers of LGBT expatriates (e.g. McPhail et al., 2016). Microfoundations of strategy	Social identity theory (i.e. identity work, intersectionality) Social capital theory Institutional theory (i.e. institutional work) HRM theories (i.e. expatriation, career capital, belonging, discrimination, stigma) Microfoundations of strategy	1. How do LGBTQIA+ employees pursue their (global) careers?2. What types of capital are pursued by the LGBTQIA+ community in transnational contexts, how and why?3. What forms of identity work do members of the LGBTQIA+ community address stigma and pursue legitimation?4. What is the habitus of different members of the LGBTQIA+ community in different parts of the world and how might it influence the microfoundations of global strategy?5. How do LGBTQIA+ individuals create optimal distinctiveness with regards to collective LGBTQIA+ identities?

Level	Illustrative examples	Examples of theories related to IB	Guiding research questions for IB
Global/ Supranational	World Bank set of proposed indicators for the LGBTI Inclusion Index (Badgett and Sell, 2018)	Institutional theory (i.e. neo-institutional theory, institutional economics, supranational institutions) Varieties of institutional systems Political science theories (i.e. geopolitics, political economy) International relations theories (i.e. diplomacy, human rights) Wickedness theory (i.e. wicked problems, grand challenges)	1. What role do supranational institutions play in the global diffusion of LGBTQIA+ rights, policies and issues?2. What is the relationship between supranational/national institutions and MNEs when it comes to LGBTQIA+ rights?3. What are the specific geopolitical aspects of LGBTQIA+ rights and issues?4. How do global LGBTQIA+ issues translate into specific types of IB risks, challenges and opportunities?5. How does the omission of the LGBTQIA+ community limit identification of both challenges and opportunities around global education, housing, healthcare, etc.?
Regional	Regional cultural expectations or LGBTQIA+ laws (e.g. Article 21 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union or the European Commission LGBTIQ Equality Strategy 2020–2025)	Institutional theory (i.e. neo-institutional theory, comparative capitalism) Regional studies	1. What is the link between competing institutional arrangements and ideology, religion and cultural differences between regions (and even sometimes global cities)?2. How do MNEs manage tensions when the MNE’s internal policies expectations differ from those of regional governing bodies?3. What is the impact of regional institutions (i.e. law, cultural values) on various aspects of mobility (i.e. people, capital, knowledge)?4. How are LGBTQIA+ rights and policies influenced by regional politics, histories and cultures?
Country/ Society	Societal differences in acceptance of LGBTQIA+ issues and communities (e.g. Poushter and Kent, 2020)	Institutional theory (i.e. institutional logics, institutional fields, historical institutionalism) Social identity theory (inter-group dynamics) Socio-Cognitive theory Social movements Linguistic theories Theories of social cohesion Cultural theories (i.e. cultural values)	1. To what degree do MNEs adapt LGBTQIA+ policies based on differing societal expectations where they operate?2. How do stakeholder expectations differ regarding corporate LGBTQIA+ policies for groups and/or countries?3. How do specific institutional logics and various institutional fields influence MNE staffing choices with regards to LGBTQIA+ and non-LGBTQIA+ employees?4. How do historical and institutional legacies shape LGBTQIA+ institutional frameworks and outcomes?5. To what extent are LGBTQIA+ issue driven by identity politics, how and why?6. How does language shape the social cognition and societal perceptions/judgements of the LGBTQIA+ community and/or specific Sub-groups?7. What specific cultural, historical, colonial and/or religious nuances influence societal attitudes towards the LGBTQIA+ community and/or specific Sub-groups?
Within-Country regional	US state differences in LGBT practice support (e.g. Gardberg et al., 2023)	Geography theories (i.e. political geography, economic geography, geography of migration) Human rights	1. How do differences in LGBTQIA+ policies within MNEs’ host countries influence MNE policy adoption?2. To what extent are LGBTQIA+ policy differences at a Sub-national level determined by rural-urban divides, regional cultures and other place-based determinants (i.e. language, religion, education, colonial influence)?3. What kind of industry-specific differences exist in LGBTQIA+ policies and practices relevant to MNEs?
Organization/ Firm	Human Rights Campaign Corporate Equality Index (e.g. Kaplan and Berkley, 2021)	Resource-based view of the firm and resource dependence OLI paradigm Strategy tripod/institution-based view for the firm Dynamic capabilities theory Stakeholder theory Signaling theory Cultural theories (i.e. cultural distance, cultural frictions)	1. To what degree do MNEs create a global LGBTQIA+ identity when operating in diverse environments?2. How do MNEs manage cultural frictions and overcome physical distance across different host markets when it comes to LGBTQIA+ issues?3. To what extent do MNEs engage in LGBTQIA+ issues as a form of corporate social responsibility and corporate political activity?4. To what extent do MNEs pursue LGBTQIA+ issues from a business case perspective or as a social justice cause?5. To what extend do MNEs or their corporate and business brands engage in corporate activism or act as social change agents and why?6. How are MNEs LGBTQIA+ policies and practices linked to its corporate reputation and public trust?7. How does a CEO’s LGBTQIA+ attitude/identity influence organizational LGBTQIA+ policies and practices?
Within-Firm/ Team level	Effectiveness and dynamics of global (virtual) teams in terms of identity-, resource- and knowledge-based subgroups (e.g. Gilson et al., 2015)	Social identity theory (i.e. identity work, intra-group dynamics and inter-group conflict) Social categorization theory Institutional theory (i.e. institutional logics, institutional fields) Faultline theory Contact theory	1. How do LGBTQIA+ policies fit within existing DEI policies and how do they shape specific inter-group dynamics within organizations?2. How do LGBTQIA+ issues impact team dynamics in cross-cultural settings?3. How do firm LGBTQIA+ policies impact the operations of global virtual teams?4. How do org. culture and inter-group dynamics interact in a LGBTQIA+ context?5. How do specific LGBTQIA+ Sub-groups produce and reproduce specific institutional fields across different subsidiaries, organisational units and/or teams?
Individual(s)	Global careers of LGBT expatriates (e.g. McPhail et al., 2016). Microfoundations of strategy	Social identity theory (i.e. identity work, intersectionality) Social capital theory Institutional theory (i.e. institutional work) HRM theories (i.e. expatriation, career capital, belonging, discrimination, stigma) Microfoundations of strategy	1. How do LGBTQIA+ employees pursue their (global) careers?2. What types of capital are pursued by the LGBTQIA+ community in transnational contexts, how and why?3. What forms of identity work do members of the LGBTQIA+ community address stigma and pursue legitimation?4. What is the habitus of different members of the LGBTQIA+ community in different parts of the world and how might it influence the microfoundations of global strategy?5. How do LGBTQIA+ individuals create optimal distinctiveness with regards to collective LGBTQIA+ identities?

Source(s): Authors’ own work