| Activities orientation: the value proposition and value-in-use are connected to the activities through which a service provider and a customer interact directly, thereby giving rise to value co-creation (e.g. SL, CDL) | Value co-creation primarily involves co-production, a direct interaction between provider and customer to produce the service (value proposition), which in turn results in the customer’s perceived value-in-use | The provider facilitates the customer’s value determination by potentially involving them in the service process and incorporating features into the service that are designed to address their needs |
| Systems orientation: the value proposition and value-in-use co-emerge through direct and indirect interactions within a service system, thereby giving rise to value co-creation (e.g. SDL) | The value proposition serves as an input for the beneficiary’s use processes and may be co-created through direct and indirect interaction between various actors in a service system over time | The customer determines value-in-use through their experiences of the service, while the value proposition provides one input into this process |