Table 2. Key areas of adaptation...

Table 2.

Key areas of adaptation strategies

Key areas	Key strategies	Sources
Livelihood diversification	Inter-cultivation operations	Bhatta et al. (2017)
	Access to finance	Menike and Arachchi (2016), Kuchimanchi et al. (2021) and Kafle et al. (2022)
	Agro-technical support	Angom et al. (2021), Ali et al. (2021) and Jatav (2024)
	Agricultural mechanization	Hussain et al. (2018), Jha and Gupta (2021), Haque et al. (2023) and Sahoo et al. (2025)
	Off-farm income generation	Kuchimanchi et al. (2021), Shahzad and Abdulai (2020), Ali et al. (2021), Sargani et al. (2023) and Irshad Ahmad et al. (2024)
Agricultural diversification	Crop rotation	Aliyar et al. (2022), Sam et al. (2020) and Angom et al. (2021)
	Cultivating a short-term crop	Naz et al. (2018), Singh (2020) and Anik et al. (2021)
	Low irrigation required varieties	Jawid and Khadjavi (2019), Kadiyala et al. (2021) and Jha and Gupta (2021)
	Sufficient irrigation	Hossain et al. (2022), Aryal et al. (2020a, 2020b) and Baruah et al. (2021)
	Rainwater harvesting	Muench et al. (2021) and Paudel et al. (2022)
	Farmyard manure application	Omerkhil et al. (2020a, 2020b), Alauddin and Sarker (2014) and Iqbal and Aziz (2022)
Risk management	Insurance	Bahinipati and Venkatachalam (2015) and Ali et al. (2021)
	Allocation of resources	Tripathi and Mishra (2017) and Dagdeviren et al. (2021)
	Government subsidy	Chalise and Naranpanawa (2016)
	Agricultural technology transfer	Azhoni and Goyal (2018), Singh et al. (2021a, 2021b) and Kuchimanchi et al. (2021)
	Support from agricultural extension agent	Khanal et al. (2018), Khanal and Wilson (2019) and Shahzad and Abdulai (2020)
Land and crop management	No tillage	Abdur Rashid Sarker et al. (2013) and Hossain et al. (2016)
	Low tillage	Islam et al. (2021a) and Rahman et al. (2021)
	Adjustment of varieties	Dubey et al. (2017) and Swami and Parthasarathy (2020)
	Adjustment of planting/harvesting time	Khanal et al. (2021)
	Adjustment of planting methods	Abid et al. (2016) and Khanal et al. (2018)
	Cropping time adjustment	Naz et al. (2018) and Suresh et al. (2021)
	Suitable crop variety selection	Abid et al. (2019), Sam et al. (2020), Kuchimanchi et al. (2021) and Bhuyan et al. (2024)
		Abid et al. (2019), Jha and Gupta (2021), Singh et al. (2021a, 2021b), Aqib et al. (2024) and Bhuyan et al. (2024)
Farm and income management	Drought-tolerant varieties	Ali and Erenstein (2017) and Aftab et al. (2021)
	Flood-tolerant varieties	Qazlbash et al. (2021) and Ali et al. (2021)
	Pest tolerant varieties	Khan et al. (2021) and Mahmood et al. (2021)
	Irrigation	Kabir et al. (2017), Khan et al. (2020) and Ahmed et al. (2021)
	Reserving water	Ahmed and Diana (2015) and Rana and Moniruzzaman (2021)
	Using rainwater	Bremer et al. (2019) and Islam et al. (2021b)
	Using pesticides and growth hormone	Bhatta et al. (2017) and Hasan and Kumar (2019)
Conservation practices	IPM (integrated pest management)	Islam and Nursey-Bray (2017)
	Agroforestry	Abdur Rashid Sarker et al. (2013), Rana and Moniruzzaman (2021) and Baruah et al. (2021)
	Cover cropping	Hossain et al. (2016) and Ahmed et al. (2021)
	Store water in a place on the crop field	Alauddin and Sarker (2014)
	Cover the ridge of the crop field after seed sowing	Jawid and Khadjavi (2019)
	Mulching	Hossain et al. (2016), Khanal and Wilson (2019) and Mahmood et al. (2021)
	Hedging surrounding the crop field	Daigneault et al. (2016)
	Planting medicinal planting around the crop filed	Ngwenya et al. (2017) and Rana and Moniruzzaman (2021)

Key areas	Key strategies	Sources
Livelihood diversification	Inter-cultivation operations	Bhatta et al. (2017)
	Access to finance	Menike and Arachchi (2016), Kuchimanchi et al. (2021) and Kafle et al. (2022)
	Agro-technical support	Angom et al. (2021), Ali et al. (2021) and Jatav (2024)
	Agricultural mechanization	Hussain et al. (2018), Jha and Gupta (2021), Haque et al. (2023) and Sahoo et al. (2025)
	Off-farm income generation	Kuchimanchi et al. (2021), Shahzad and Abdulai (2020), Ali et al. (2021), Sargani et al. (2023) and Irshad Ahmad et al. (2024)
Agricultural diversification	Crop rotation	Aliyar et al. (2022), Sam et al. (2020) and Angom et al. (2021)
	Cultivating a short-term crop	Naz et al. (2018), Singh (2020) and Anik et al. (2021)
	Low irrigation required varieties	Jawid and Khadjavi (2019), Kadiyala et al. (2021) and Jha and Gupta (2021)
	Sufficient irrigation	Hossain et al. (2022), Aryal et al. (2020a, 2020b) and Baruah et al. (2021)
	Rainwater harvesting	Muench et al. (2021) and Paudel et al. (2022)
	Farmyard manure application	Omerkhil et al. (2020a, 2020b), Alauddin and Sarker (2014) and Iqbal and Aziz (2022)
Risk management	Insurance	Bahinipati and Venkatachalam (2015) and Ali et al. (2021)
	Allocation of resources	Tripathi and Mishra (2017) and Dagdeviren et al. (2021)
	Government subsidy	Chalise and Naranpanawa (2016)
	Agricultural technology transfer	Azhoni and Goyal (2018), Singh et al. (2021a, 2021b) and Kuchimanchi et al. (2021)
	Support from agricultural extension agent	Khanal et al. (2018), Khanal and Wilson (2019) and Shahzad and Abdulai (2020)
Land and crop management	No tillage	Abdur Rashid Sarker et al. (2013) and Hossain et al. (2016)
	Low tillage	Islam et al. (2021a) and Rahman et al. (2021)
	Adjustment of varieties	Dubey et al. (2017) and Swami and Parthasarathy (2020)
	Adjustment of planting/harvesting time	Khanal et al. (2021)
	Adjustment of planting methods	Abid et al. (2016) and Khanal et al. (2018)
	Cropping time adjustment	Naz et al. (2018) and Suresh et al. (2021)
	Suitable crop variety selection	Abid et al. (2019), Sam et al. (2020), Kuchimanchi et al. (2021) and Bhuyan et al. (2024)
		Abid et al. (2019), Jha and Gupta (2021), Singh et al. (2021a, 2021b), Aqib et al. (2024) and Bhuyan et al. (2024)
Farm and income management	Drought-tolerant varieties	Ali and Erenstein (2017) and Aftab et al. (2021)
	Flood-tolerant varieties	Qazlbash et al. (2021) and Ali et al. (2021)
	Pest tolerant varieties	Khan et al. (2021) and Mahmood et al. (2021)
	Irrigation	Kabir et al. (2017), Khan et al. (2020) and Ahmed et al. (2021)
	Reserving water	Ahmed and Diana (2015) and Rana and Moniruzzaman (2021)
	Using rainwater	Bremer et al. (2019) and Islam et al. (2021b)
	Using pesticides and growth hormone	Bhatta et al. (2017) and Hasan and Kumar (2019)
Conservation practices	IPM (integrated pest management)	Islam and Nursey-Bray (2017)
	Agroforestry	Abdur Rashid Sarker et al. (2013), Rana and Moniruzzaman (2021) and Baruah et al. (2021)
	Cover cropping	Hossain et al. (2016) and Ahmed et al. (2021)
	Store water in a place on the crop field	Alauddin and Sarker (2014)
	Cover the ridge of the crop field after seed sowing	Jawid and Khadjavi (2019)
	Mulching	Hossain et al. (2016), Khanal and Wilson (2019) and Mahmood et al. (2021)
	Hedging surrounding the crop field	Daigneault et al. (2016)
	Planting medicinal planting around the crop filed	Ngwenya et al. (2017) and Rana and Moniruzzaman (2021)

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