Variables
| Variable | Abbreviation | Use in the model | Definition | Unit | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 exposure | PM2.5 | ln | Population-weighted annual average PM2.5 exposure | µg/m3 | WDI (EN.ATM.PM2.5.MC.M3, 1990–2020) + ACAG Annual PM2.5 Dataset |
| CO2 emissions per capita | CO2 | ln | Carbon dioxide emissions per capita | ton/person/year | Our World in Data (OWID) – CO2 and GHG Emissions Database |
| Built-up area (%) | BU | % | Percentage of land area that is built-up | % | Derived: BU_km2/LAND_km2 × 100 (GHSL data) |
| Within-country built-up deviation | BUw | centered/within | BU variable residuals after removing country and year fixed effects | % (residual value) | Author's calculation (derived for model) |
| Forest area (%) | FOR | % | Ratio of forest area to total land area | % | World Bank – WDI (AG.LND.FRST.ZS) |
| Within-country forest deviation | FORw | centered/within | Forest area residuals after removing country and year fixed effects | % (residual value) | Author's calculation (derived for model) |
| GDP per capita | GDPpc | ln | Gross Domestic Product per capita (constant 2015 USD) | USD/person | World Bank – WDI (NY.GDP.PCAP.KD) |
| Urban population (%) | URB | % | Share of total population living in urban areas | % | World Bank – WDI (SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS) |
| Arable land (%) | ARB | % | Proportion of total land area that is arable | % | World Bank – WDI (AG.LND.ARBL.ZS) |
| Variable | Abbreviation | Use in the model | Definition | Unit | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 exposure | PM2.5 | ln | Population-weighted annual average PM2.5 exposure | µg/m3 | WDI (EN.ATM.PM2.5.MC.M3, 1990–2020) + ACAG Annual PM2.5 Dataset |
| CO2 emissions per capita | CO2 | ln | Carbon dioxide emissions per capita | ton/person/year | Our World in Data (OWID) – CO2 and GHG Emissions Database |
| Built-up area (%) | BU | % | Percentage of land area that is built-up | % | Derived: BU_km2/LAND_km2 × 100 (GHSL data) |
| Within-country built-up deviation | BUw | centered/within | BU variable residuals after removing country and year fixed effects | % (residual value) | Author's calculation (derived for model) |
| Forest area (%) | FOR | % | Ratio of forest area to total land area | % | World Bank – WDI (AG.LND.FRST.ZS) |
| Within-country forest deviation | FORw | centered/within | Forest area residuals after removing country and year fixed effects | % (residual value) | Author's calculation (derived for model) |
| GDP per capita | GDPpc | ln | Gross Domestic Product per capita (constant 2015 USD) | USD/person | World Bank – WDI (NY.GDP.PCAP.KD) |
| Urban population (%) | URB | % | Share of total population living in urban areas | % | World Bank – WDI (SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS) |
| Arable land (%) | ARB | % | Proportion of total land area that is arable | % | World Bank – WDI (AG.LND.ARBL.ZS) |