CO2 panel Fourier causality test results
| Countries | Wald | Prob | Wald | Prob | Wald | Prob | Wald | Prob | Wald | Prob | Wald | Prob | Wald | Prob |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5→BU | PM2.5→FOR | PM2.5→BUFOR | PM2.5→GDP | PM2.5→GDP2 | PM2.5→URB | PM2.5→ARB | ||||||||
| Austria | 5.35*** | 0.00 | 0.32 | 0.60 | 0.58 | 0.50 | 7.18*** | 0.00 | 7.21*** | 0.00 | 0.69 | 0.40 | 0.03 | 0.90 |
| Bulgaria | 0.00 | 1.00 | 0.47 | 0.50 | 1.51 | 0.30 | 0.15 | 0.65 | 0.15 | 0.65 | 3.30 | 0.20 | 3.65* | 0.10 |
| Croatia | 3.01** | 0.05 | 0.27 | 0.60 | 4.96*** | 0.00 | 6.18*** | 0.00 | 5.78*** | 0.00 | 0.21 | 0.75 | 0.54 | 0.50 |
| Cyprus | 3.02 | 0.15 | 1.33 | 0.25 | 0.64 | 0.50 | 0.20 | 0.55 | 0.19 | 0.55 | 0.00 | 1.00 | 1.98 | 0.30 |
| Czechia | 0.06 | 0.75 | 0.21 | 0.25 | 0.04 | 0.75 | 0.06 | 0.80 | 0.11 | 0.80 | 0.31 | 0.65 | 0.02 | 0.90 |
| Denmark | 0.08 | 0.75 | 0.22 | 0.70 | 0.25 | 0.35 | 2.48 | 0.20 | 2.48 | 0.20 | 2.38** | 0.05 | 0.20 | 0.75 |
| Estonia | 2.21* | 0.10 | 0.33 | 0.65 | 0.67 | 0.35 | 1.71 | 0.30 | 1.68 | 0.30 | 1.22 | 0.20 | 0.07 | 0.90 |
| Finland | 1.24 | 0.20 | 0.49 | 0.55 | 0.23 | 0.50 | 9.40*** | 0.00 | 9.37*** | 0.00 | 2.25** | 0.05 | 0.11 | 0.90 |
| France | 2.91** | 0.05 | 0.48 | 0.35 | 5.30*** | 0.00 | 7.89*** | 0.00 | 8.05*** | 0.00 | 0.17 | 0.75 | 6.54*** | 0.00 |
| Germany | 2.46 | 0.15 | 0.37 | 0.65 | 0.13 | 0.85 | 2.19 | 0.15 | 2.19 | 0.15 | 4.98** | 0.05 | 0.55 | 0.40 |
| Greece | 1.33 | 0.25 | 0.72 | 0.30 | 4.84*** | 0.00 | 0.14 | 0.70 | 0.13 | 0.70 | 1.12 | 0.30 | 0.99 | 0.25 |
| Hungary | 0.00 | 0.95 | 2.42 | 0.15 | 6.19*** | 0.00 | 0.44 | 0.45 | 0.59 | 0.45 | 2.66 | 0.15 | 0.71 | 0.30 |
| Ireland | 7.92** | 0.05 | 1.30 | 0.15 | 2.90* | 0.10 | 10.38*** | 0.00 | 10.19*** | 0.00 | 0.61 | 0.40 | 1.04 | 0.15 |
| Italy | 0.67 | 0.55 | 0.33 | 0.55 | 1.88 | 0.20 | 2.61** | 0.05 | 2.62** | 0.05 | 1.08 | 0.35 | 0.23 | 0.70 |
| Latvia | 0.01 | 0.85 | 5.96*** | 0.00 | 0.26 | 0.50 | 2.73 | 0.15 | 3.03 | 0.15 | 0.21 | 0.45 | 0.25 | 0.55 |
| Lithuania | 0.32 | 0.50 | 2.03 | 0.15 | 0.01 | 0.90 | 0.05 | 0.75 | 0.04 | 0.75 | 0.05 | 0.80 | 0.07 | 0.90 |
| Malta | 2.78 | 0.15 | 1.68 | 0.30 | 0.41 | 0.60 | 0.46 | 0.50 | 0.49 | 0.50 | 3.52* | 0.10 | 0.44 | 0.60 |
| Netherlands | 1.98 | 0.15 | 0.27 | 0.70 | 3.61* | 0.10 | 6.34*** | 0.00 | 6.45*** | 0.00 | 0.12 | 0.85 | 0.11 | 0.80 |
| Poland | 4.83* | 0.10 | 0.00 | 0.90 | 2.02 | 0.25 | 8.16*** | 0.00 | 9.12*** | 0.00 | 1.57 | 0.25 | 0.88 | 0.25 |
| Portugal | 0.03 | 0.95 | 0.22 | 0.70 | 0.52 | 0.40 | 0.03 | 0.95 | 0.03 | 0.95 | 0.52 | 0.40 | 3.83 | 0.20 |
| Romania | 0.00 | 1.00 | 3.66 | 0.10 | 0.40 | 0.60 | 2.79** | 0.05 | 3.29** | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.90 | 1.27 | 0.35 |
| Slovak Republic | 0.92 | 0.45 | 4.31*** | 0.00 | 4.12*** | 0.00 | 0.66 | 0.40 | 0.68 | 0.40 | 0.70 | 0.35 | 0.17 | 0.70 |
| Slovenia | 1.52 | 0.20 | 4.99 | 0.05 | 0.67 | 0.50 | 0.03 | 1.00 | 0.04 | 0.90 | 2.01 | 0.25 | 0.00 | 0.90 |
| Spain | 0.01 | 0.95 | 3.42*** | 0.00 | 0.11 | 0.50 | 1.16 | 0.30 | 1.18 | 0.30 | 0.69 | 0.40 | 0.12 | 0.75 |
| Sweden | 0.40 | 0.60 | 0.06 | 0.80 | 0.31 | 0.65 | 9.86*** | 0.00 | 9.84*** | 0.00 | 0.23 | 0.70 | 0.00 | 1.00 |
| Countries | Wald | Prob | Wald | Prob | Wald | Prob | Wald | Prob | Wald | Prob | Wald | Prob | Wald | Prob |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5→BU | PM2.5→FOR | PM2.5→BUFOR | PM2.5→GDP | PM2.5→GDP2 | PM2.5→URB | PM2.5→ARB | ||||||||
| Austria | 5.35*** | 0.00 | 0.32 | 0.60 | 0.58 | 0.50 | 7.18*** | 0.00 | 7.21*** | 0.00 | 0.69 | 0.40 | 0.03 | 0.90 |
| Bulgaria | 0.00 | 1.00 | 0.47 | 0.50 | 1.51 | 0.30 | 0.15 | 0.65 | 0.15 | 0.65 | 3.30 | 0.20 | 3.65* | 0.10 |
| Croatia | 3.01** | 0.05 | 0.27 | 0.60 | 4.96*** | 0.00 | 6.18*** | 0.00 | 5.78*** | 0.00 | 0.21 | 0.75 | 0.54 | 0.50 |
| Cyprus | 3.02 | 0.15 | 1.33 | 0.25 | 0.64 | 0.50 | 0.20 | 0.55 | 0.19 | 0.55 | 0.00 | 1.00 | 1.98 | 0.30 |
| Czechia | 0.06 | 0.75 | 0.21 | 0.25 | 0.04 | 0.75 | 0.06 | 0.80 | 0.11 | 0.80 | 0.31 | 0.65 | 0.02 | 0.90 |
| Denmark | 0.08 | 0.75 | 0.22 | 0.70 | 0.25 | 0.35 | 2.48 | 0.20 | 2.48 | 0.20 | 2.38** | 0.05 | 0.20 | 0.75 |
| Estonia | 2.21* | 0.10 | 0.33 | 0.65 | 0.67 | 0.35 | 1.71 | 0.30 | 1.68 | 0.30 | 1.22 | 0.20 | 0.07 | 0.90 |
| Finland | 1.24 | 0.20 | 0.49 | 0.55 | 0.23 | 0.50 | 9.40*** | 0.00 | 9.37*** | 0.00 | 2.25** | 0.05 | 0.11 | 0.90 |
| France | 2.91** | 0.05 | 0.48 | 0.35 | 5.30*** | 0.00 | 7.89*** | 0.00 | 8.05*** | 0.00 | 0.17 | 0.75 | 6.54*** | 0.00 |
| Germany | 2.46 | 0.15 | 0.37 | 0.65 | 0.13 | 0.85 | 2.19 | 0.15 | 2.19 | 0.15 | 4.98** | 0.05 | 0.55 | 0.40 |
| Greece | 1.33 | 0.25 | 0.72 | 0.30 | 4.84*** | 0.00 | 0.14 | 0.70 | 0.13 | 0.70 | 1.12 | 0.30 | 0.99 | 0.25 |
| Hungary | 0.00 | 0.95 | 2.42 | 0.15 | 6.19*** | 0.00 | 0.44 | 0.45 | 0.59 | 0.45 | 2.66 | 0.15 | 0.71 | 0.30 |
| Ireland | 7.92** | 0.05 | 1.30 | 0.15 | 2.90* | 0.10 | 10.38*** | 0.00 | 10.19*** | 0.00 | 0.61 | 0.40 | 1.04 | 0.15 |
| Italy | 0.67 | 0.55 | 0.33 | 0.55 | 1.88 | 0.20 | 2.61** | 0.05 | 2.62** | 0.05 | 1.08 | 0.35 | 0.23 | 0.70 |
| Latvia | 0.01 | 0.85 | 5.96*** | 0.00 | 0.26 | 0.50 | 2.73 | 0.15 | 3.03 | 0.15 | 0.21 | 0.45 | 0.25 | 0.55 |
| Lithuania | 0.32 | 0.50 | 2.03 | 0.15 | 0.01 | 0.90 | 0.05 | 0.75 | 0.04 | 0.75 | 0.05 | 0.80 | 0.07 | 0.90 |
| Malta | 2.78 | 0.15 | 1.68 | 0.30 | 0.41 | 0.60 | 0.46 | 0.50 | 0.49 | 0.50 | 3.52* | 0.10 | 0.44 | 0.60 |
| Netherlands | 1.98 | 0.15 | 0.27 | 0.70 | 3.61* | 0.10 | 6.34*** | 0.00 | 6.45*** | 0.00 | 0.12 | 0.85 | 0.11 | 0.80 |
| Poland | 4.83* | 0.10 | 0.00 | 0.90 | 2.02 | 0.25 | 8.16*** | 0.00 | 9.12*** | 0.00 | 1.57 | 0.25 | 0.88 | 0.25 |
| Portugal | 0.03 | 0.95 | 0.22 | 0.70 | 0.52 | 0.40 | 0.03 | 0.95 | 0.03 | 0.95 | 0.52 | 0.40 | 3.83 | 0.20 |
| Romania | 0.00 | 1.00 | 3.66 | 0.10 | 0.40 | 0.60 | 2.79** | 0.05 | 3.29** | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.90 | 1.27 | 0.35 |
| Slovak Republic | 0.92 | 0.45 | 4.31*** | 0.00 | 4.12*** | 0.00 | 0.66 | 0.40 | 0.68 | 0.40 | 0.70 | 0.35 | 0.17 | 0.70 |
| Slovenia | 1.52 | 0.20 | 4.99 | 0.05 | 0.67 | 0.50 | 0.03 | 1.00 | 0.04 | 0.90 | 2.01 | 0.25 | 0.00 | 0.90 |
| Spain | 0.01 | 0.95 | 3.42*** | 0.00 | 0.11 | 0.50 | 1.16 | 0.30 | 1.18 | 0.30 | 0.69 | 0.40 | 0.12 | 0.75 |
| Sweden | 0.40 | 0.60 | 0.06 | 0.80 | 0.31 | 0.65 | 9.86*** | 0.00 | 9.84*** | 0.00 | 0.23 | 0.70 | 0.00 | 1.00 |
| Countries | BU→PM2.5 | FOR→PM2.5 | BUFOR→PM2.5 | GDP→PM2.5 | GDP2→PM2.5 | URB→PM2.5 | ARB→PM2.5 | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Austria | 7.44*** | 0 | 0.29 | 0.55 | 5.63** | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.9 | 0.04 | 0.95 | 0 | 1 | 1.08 | 0.2 |
| Bulgaria | 0.69 | 0.25 | 0.14 | 0.65 | 3.14* | 0.1 | 0.16 | 0.75 | 0.14 | 0.75 | 0.03 | 0.95 | 0.33 | 0.65 |
| Croatia | 0 | 1 | 5.38* | 0.1 | 0.34 | 0.7 | 0.07 | 0.9 | 0.07 | 0.85 | 0.09 | 0.8 | 4.14** | 0.05 |
| Cyprus | 0.01 | 0.95 | 0.05 | 0.9 | 0.27 | 0.6 | 0.47 | 0.65 | 0.42 | 0.65 | 0.08 | 0.8 | 1.66 | 0.3 |
| Czechia | 1.59 | 0.25 | 0.01 | 0.9 | 1.06 | 0.4 | 0.08 | 1 | 0.03 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0.3 | 0.55 |
| Denmark | 0.42 | 0.45 | 0.02 | 0.85 | 1.09 | 0.35 | 0.74 | 0.3 | 0.78 | 0.3 | 0.81 | 0.35 | 0.71 | 0.4 |
| Estonia | 0.35 | 0.4 | 0.16 | 0.75 | 0.94 | 0.25 | 4.72*** | 0 | 4.73* | 0.1 | 0.01 | 1 | 1.02 | 0.2 |
| Finland | 0.69 | 0.5 | 0.83 | 0.45 | 2.28 | 0.2 | 0.03 | 0.95 | 0.02 | 1 | 0.01 | 0.85 | 1.36 | 0.2 |
| France | 9.81*** | 0 | 0.03 | 0.95 | 9.21*** | 0 | 0.54 | 0.3 | 0.53 | 0.3 | 0.52 | 0.3 | 4.68*** | 0 |
| Germany | 1.72 | 0.4 | 8.59*** | 0 | 3.41* | 0.1 | 0.43 | 0.65 | 0.42 | 0.65 | 2.56** | 0.05 | 2.27* | 0.1 |
| Greece | 0 | 1 | 1.26 | 0.3 | 1 | 0.4 | 0.52 | 0.45 | 0.51 | 0.4 | 0.04 | 0.75 | 5.35*** | 0 |
| Hungary | 5.07 | 0.15 | 3.38** | 0.05 | 4.78** | 0.05 | 0.44 | 0.6 | 0.42 | 0.6 | 0.18 | 0.6 | 6.80** | 0.05 |
| Ireland | 4.19** | 0.05 | 0.17 | 0.65 | 2.66* | 0.1 | 0.53 | 0.3 | 0.57 | 0.3 | 0 | 0.95 | 0.06 | 0.85 |
| Italy | 0.06 | 0.9 | 0.1 | 0.65 | 0.01 | 0.85 | 0.04 | 0.75 | 0.04 | 0.75 | 0.07 | 0.7 | 0 | 1 |
| Latvia | 3.32* | 0.1 | 3.77** | 0.05 | 3.95** | 0.05 | 2.69 | 0.15 | 2.55 | 0.15 | 0.59 | 0.4 | 0.65 | 0.35 |
| Lithuania | 9.27*** | 0 | 0.47 | 0.2 | 0.25 | 0.7 | 0.42 | 0.4 | 0.38 | 0.4 | 1.05 | 0.2 | 1.30* | 0.1 |
| Malta | 0.41 | 0.5 | 15.78*** | 0 | 0.64 | 0.5 | 0.87 | 0.45 | 0.93 | 0.45 | 0.29 | 0.55 | 0.08 | 0.75 |
| Netherlands | 8.41*** | 0 | 4.57* | 0.1 | 6.66*** | 0 | 0.63 | 0.2 | 0.64 | 0.2 | 0.01 | 0.85 | 0.05 | 0.95 |
| Poland | 6.04*** | 0 | 2.49 | 0.2 | 2.42 | 0.15 | 1.51 | 0.2 | 1.8 | 0.2 | 0.52 | 0.3 | 1.85* | 0.1 |
| Portugal | 0.04 | 0.85 | 8.33*** | 0 | 1.6 | 0.2 | 0.12 | 0.7 | 0.11 | 0.7 | 3.41 | 0.15 | 0.19 | 0.65 |
| Romania | 0.7 | 0.5 | 1.05 | 0.45 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.87 | 0.15 | 0.99* | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.75 | 1.97* | 0.1 |
| Slovak Republic | 10.93*** | 0 | 0.19 | 0.65 | 4.65*** | 0 | 3.76** | 0.05 | 3.60** | 0.05 | 1.51 | 0.4 | 4.14*** | 0 |
| Slovenia | 4.34** | 0.05 | 2.14 | 0.25 | 6.66** | 0.05 | 2.18 | 0.2 | 2.11 | 0.2 | 4.84*** | 0 | 1.68 | 0.15 |
| Spain | 0.69 | 0.55 | 2.90* | 0.1 | 0.64 | 0.6 | 1.32 | 0.15 | 1.35 | 0.2 | 0.25 | 0.6 | 0 | 1 |
| Sweden | 8.07** | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.8 | 1.28 | 0.2 | 8.97*** | 0 | 8.91*** | 0 | 0.06 | 0.8 | 3.19*** | 0 |
| Countries | BU→PM2.5 | FOR→PM2.5 | BUFOR→PM2.5 | GDP→PM2.5 | GDP2→PM2.5 | URB→PM2.5 | ARB→PM2.5 | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Austria | 7.44*** | 0 | 0.29 | 0.55 | 5.63** | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.9 | 0.04 | 0.95 | 0 | 1 | 1.08 | 0.2 |
| Bulgaria | 0.69 | 0.25 | 0.14 | 0.65 | 3.14* | 0.1 | 0.16 | 0.75 | 0.14 | 0.75 | 0.03 | 0.95 | 0.33 | 0.65 |
| Croatia | 0 | 1 | 5.38* | 0.1 | 0.34 | 0.7 | 0.07 | 0.9 | 0.07 | 0.85 | 0.09 | 0.8 | 4.14** | 0.05 |
| Cyprus | 0.01 | 0.95 | 0.05 | 0.9 | 0.27 | 0.6 | 0.47 | 0.65 | 0.42 | 0.65 | 0.08 | 0.8 | 1.66 | 0.3 |
| Czechia | 1.59 | 0.25 | 0.01 | 0.9 | 1.06 | 0.4 | 0.08 | 1 | 0.03 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0.3 | 0.55 |
| Denmark | 0.42 | 0.45 | 0.02 | 0.85 | 1.09 | 0.35 | 0.74 | 0.3 | 0.78 | 0.3 | 0.81 | 0.35 | 0.71 | 0.4 |
| Estonia | 0.35 | 0.4 | 0.16 | 0.75 | 0.94 | 0.25 | 4.72*** | 0 | 4.73* | 0.1 | 0.01 | 1 | 1.02 | 0.2 |
| Finland | 0.69 | 0.5 | 0.83 | 0.45 | 2.28 | 0.2 | 0.03 | 0.95 | 0.02 | 1 | 0.01 | 0.85 | 1.36 | 0.2 |
| France | 9.81*** | 0 | 0.03 | 0.95 | 9.21*** | 0 | 0.54 | 0.3 | 0.53 | 0.3 | 0.52 | 0.3 | 4.68*** | 0 |
| Germany | 1.72 | 0.4 | 8.59*** | 0 | 3.41* | 0.1 | 0.43 | 0.65 | 0.42 | 0.65 | 2.56** | 0.05 | 2.27* | 0.1 |
| Greece | 0 | 1 | 1.26 | 0.3 | 1 | 0.4 | 0.52 | 0.45 | 0.51 | 0.4 | 0.04 | 0.75 | 5.35*** | 0 |
| Hungary | 5.07 | 0.15 | 3.38** | 0.05 | 4.78** | 0.05 | 0.44 | 0.6 | 0.42 | 0.6 | 0.18 | 0.6 | 6.80** | 0.05 |
| Ireland | 4.19** | 0.05 | 0.17 | 0.65 | 2.66* | 0.1 | 0.53 | 0.3 | 0.57 | 0.3 | 0 | 0.95 | 0.06 | 0.85 |
| Italy | 0.06 | 0.9 | 0.1 | 0.65 | 0.01 | 0.85 | 0.04 | 0.75 | 0.04 | 0.75 | 0.07 | 0.7 | 0 | 1 |
| Latvia | 3.32* | 0.1 | 3.77** | 0.05 | 3.95** | 0.05 | 2.69 | 0.15 | 2.55 | 0.15 | 0.59 | 0.4 | 0.65 | 0.35 |
| Lithuania | 9.27*** | 0 | 0.47 | 0.2 | 0.25 | 0.7 | 0.42 | 0.4 | 0.38 | 0.4 | 1.05 | 0.2 | 1.30* | 0.1 |
| Malta | 0.41 | 0.5 | 15.78*** | 0 | 0.64 | 0.5 | 0.87 | 0.45 | 0.93 | 0.45 | 0.29 | 0.55 | 0.08 | 0.75 |
| Netherlands | 8.41*** | 0 | 4.57* | 0.1 | 6.66*** | 0 | 0.63 | 0.2 | 0.64 | 0.2 | 0.01 | 0.85 | 0.05 | 0.95 |
| Poland | 6.04*** | 0 | 2.49 | 0.2 | 2.42 | 0.15 | 1.51 | 0.2 | 1.8 | 0.2 | 0.52 | 0.3 | 1.85* | 0.1 |
| Portugal | 0.04 | 0.85 | 8.33*** | 0 | 1.6 | 0.2 | 0.12 | 0.7 | 0.11 | 0.7 | 3.41 | 0.15 | 0.19 | 0.65 |
| Romania | 0.7 | 0.5 | 1.05 | 0.45 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.87 | 0.15 | 0.99* | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.75 | 1.97* | 0.1 |
| Slovak Republic | 10.93*** | 0 | 0.19 | 0.65 | 4.65*** | 0 | 3.76** | 0.05 | 3.60** | 0.05 | 1.51 | 0.4 | 4.14*** | 0 |
| Slovenia | 4.34** | 0.05 | 2.14 | 0.25 | 6.66** | 0.05 | 2.18 | 0.2 | 2.11 | 0.2 | 4.84*** | 0 | 1.68 | 0.15 |
| Spain | 0.69 | 0.55 | 2.90* | 0.1 | 0.64 | 0.6 | 1.32 | 0.15 | 1.35 | 0.2 | 0.25 | 0.6 | 0 | 1 |
| Sweden | 8.07** | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.8 | 1.28 | 0.2 | 8.97*** | 0 | 8.91*** | 0 | 0.06 | 0.8 | 3.19*** | 0 |