Table 2.

Key areas of adaptation strategies

Key areasKey strategiesSources
Livelihood diversificationInter-cultivation operationsBhatta et al. (2017) 
 Access to financeMenike and Arachchi (2016), Kuchimanchi et al. (2021) and Kafle et al. (2022) 
 Agro-technical supportAngom et al. (2021), Ali et al. (2021) and Jatav (2024) 
 Agricultural mechanizationHussain et al. (2018), Jha and Gupta (2021), Haque et al. (2023) and Sahoo et al. (2025) 
 Off-farm income generationKuchimanchi et al. (2021), Shahzad and Abdulai (2020), Ali et al. (2021), Sargani et al. (2023) and Irshad Ahmad et al. (2024) 
Agricultural diversificationCrop rotationAliyar et al. (2022), Sam et al. (2020) and Angom et al. (2021) 
 Cultivating a short-term cropNaz et al. (2018), Singh (2020) and Anik et al. (2021) 
 Low irrigation required varietiesJawid and Khadjavi (2019), Kadiyala et al. (2021) and Jha and Gupta (2021) 
 Sufficient irrigationHossain et al. (2022), Aryal et al. (2020a, 2020b) and Baruah et al. (2021) 
 Rainwater harvestingMuench et al. (2021) and Paudel et al. (2022) 
 Farmyard manure applicationOmerkhil et al. (2020a, 2020b), Alauddin and Sarker (2014) and Iqbal and Aziz (2022) 
Risk managementInsuranceBahinipati and Venkatachalam (2015) and Ali et al. (2021) 
 Allocation of resourcesTripathi and Mishra (2017) and Dagdeviren et al. (2021) 
 Government subsidyChalise and Naranpanawa (2016) 
 Agricultural technology transferAzhoni and Goyal (2018), Singh et al. (2021a, 2021b) and Kuchimanchi et al. (2021) 
 Support from agricultural extension agentKhanal et al. (2018), Khanal and Wilson (2019) and Shahzad and Abdulai (2020) 
Land and crop managementNo tillageAbdur Rashid Sarker et al. (2013) and Hossain et al. (2016) 
 Low tillageIslam et al. (2021a) and Rahman et al. (2021) 
 Adjustment of varietiesDubey et al. (2017) and Swami and Parthasarathy (2020) 
 Adjustment of planting/harvesting timeKhanal et al. (2021) 
 Adjustment of planting methodsAbid et al. (2016) and Khanal et al. (2018) 
 Cropping time adjustmentNaz et al. (2018) and Suresh et al. (2021) 
 Suitable crop variety selectionAbid et al. (2019), Sam et al. (2020), Kuchimanchi et al. (2021) and Bhuyan et al. (2024) 
  Abid et al. (2019), Jha and Gupta (2021), Singh et al. (2021a, 2021b), Aqib et al. (2024) and Bhuyan et al. (2024) 
Farm and income managementDrought-tolerant varietiesAli and Erenstein (2017) and Aftab et al. (2021) 
 Flood-tolerant varietiesQazlbash et al. (2021) and Ali et al. (2021) 
 Pest tolerant varietiesKhan et al. (2021) and Mahmood et al. (2021) 
 IrrigationKabir et al. (2017), Khan et al. (2020) and Ahmed et al. (2021) 
 Reserving waterAhmed and Diana (2015) and Rana and Moniruzzaman (2021) 
 Using rainwaterBremer et al. (2019) and Islam et al. (2021b)
 Using pesticides and growth hormoneBhatta et al. (2017) and Hasan and Kumar (2019) 
Conservation practicesIPM (integrated pest management)Islam and Nursey-Bray (2017) 
 AgroforestryAbdur Rashid Sarker et al. (2013), Rana and Moniruzzaman (2021) and Baruah et al. (2021) 
 Cover croppingHossain et al. (2016) and Ahmed et al. (2021) 
 Store water in a place on the crop fieldAlauddin and Sarker (2014) 
 Cover the ridge of the crop field after seed sowingJawid and Khadjavi (2019) 
 MulchingHossain et al. (2016), Khanal and Wilson (2019) and Mahmood et al. (2021) 
 Hedging surrounding the crop fieldDaigneault et al. (2016) 
 Planting medicinal planting around the crop filedNgwenya et al. (2017) and Rana and Moniruzzaman (2021) 
Source(s): Authors’ own creation
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