Table A1. Mapping construction site...

Table A1.

Mapping construction site characteristics against workers’ MHW outcomes using theoretical dimensions

No.	Article (author, year)	JDR theory		Salutogenesis theory
No.	Article (author, year)	Job Demands (JD-R)	Job resources (JD-R)	Comprehensibility	Manageability	Meaningfulness
1	(Omer et al., 2024a)	Workload, long hours, monitoring, poor conditions	Leadership, welfare, communication, transport	Structured workflow, feedback	Timely pay, safety systems	Respect, collaboration, team support
2	(Szer et al., 2022)	Heat, solar radiation, humidity, workload at height	Scaffolding covers, heat index tools (UTCI)	Weather monitoring, risk correlations	Breaks, forecast-based planning, shade/rest areas	Safer work, dignity under extreme heat
3	(Kwong et al., 2023)	Heat, noise, humidity, poor airflow	Fans, PPE, shade, rest breaks	Clear PPE use, routines	Breaks reduced strain	Safety, worker satisfaction
4	(Irfan et al., 2024)	–	Welfare (rest, hygiene, transport, safety)	Welfare improves predictability	Amenities support demand handling	Amenities enhance work value/satisfaction
5	(Radzi et al., 2023)	Workload, hours, deadlines, payment, safety risks	Welfare, food, transport, insurance, leadership, comms	Planning and communication improve task clarity	Leadership, job clarity, and welfare aid control	Leadership and welfare boost value/purpose
6	(Rani et al., 2022)	Long hours, project pressure, performance checks	Welfare facilities, site safety, health monitoring	Project planning, role clarity	Site planning, clear safety procedures	Safety support, adequate site amenities
7	(Radzi et al., 2024)	Long working hours, physical strain, site isolation	Site layout, rest areas, communication tools	Clear roles, signage, site updates	Work planning, break access	Site connection, purpose in physical work
8	(Bitencourt et al., 2021)	Extreme heat, heat waves, outdoor physical labour	–	Climate data and WBGT improve awareness	Limited mitigation mechanisms	General concern for health (policy level)
9	(Messeri et al., 2019)	Heat exposure, physical strain, migrant vulnerability	Training (formal/informal)	Varies by group – clearer for native workers	Migrants adapt despite fewer formal supports	Inferred through reporting of effort
10	(Umar and Egbu, 2020)	Excessive heat, physical strain, hypertension risks	Breaks, hydration, rescheduling, screening (suggested)	Workers aware of heat risks and related incidents	Task rescheduling, lighter clothing, shift planning (partial)	–
11	(Kurtzer et al., 2020)	Heat, weather extremes	Suggestions for environmental adjustments	Awareness of weather-related risks	Limited site-level control	Health linked to work ability
12	(Pogačar et al., 2019)	Heat waves, dehydration, physical exhaustion	Water access, peer discussion	Informal awareness of heat effects on work	Hydration, peer support	–
13	(Chan et al., 2016)	Heat, humidity, clothing discomfort	Cooling clothing, breathable fabrics	Design feedback, discomfort awareness	Prototype testing	Safety, performance
14	(Chinnadurai et al., 2016)	High heat, cardiovascular strain	PMV model, ISO standards, field interviews	Heart rate and PMV data interpretation	Indoor task adaptation	Health protection, climate planning
15	(Farshad et al., 2014)	Extreme heat, dehydration, solar radiation	No formal OHS, no rest/hydration system	Awareness via WBGT/TWL/USG indices	Lack of control, informal setting	Work necessity under poor conditions
16	(Zhang et al., 2023)	Workload, job pressure, physical strain	Welfare, PPE, safe worksite	Wellbeing dimensions, visual tools	Equipment, fair pay, team support	Fairness, support, family balance
17	(Liu et al., 2023)	Workload, task ambiguity	WHS practices	Task clarity	Work planning	–
18	(Onubi et al., 2024)	Site-level green practice requirements	On-site green skills, awareness	Clarity through SEM modeling	Support for green actions	Sustainability-oriented values
19	(Yi and Chan, 2015)	Heat, workload, solar radiation, clothing insulation, ventilation	WBGT model, heart rate data, PPE selection, rest cycle	Heat index model improves risk clarity	Index-based planning and PPE choice	Science-based care supports value of worker role
20	(Yi and Chan, 2017)	Heat, continuous physical labor, physiological strain	Smart work-rest model, WBGT thresholds, workload data	Visual tools and thresholds clarify risks	Real-time schedule adjustments possible	Personalized planning supports health and motivation
21	(Kawakami et al., 2024)	Heat, humidity, physical workload, long hours	Cooling jackets, shaded rest zones, scheduled breaks	Physiological and subjective fatigue assessment	Cooler break areas reduced heat strain	Recovery supports health, but fatigue remained
22	(Guo et al., 2019)	Heat, humidity, physical strain, risk of heat illness	Cooling vest with PCM, fans, UV-protection	Vest performance tested and explained	Reduced heat strain, improved recovery	Comfort and safety supported work performance
23	(Esmaeilifar et al., 2020)	Stress from recycle/reuse tasks, low-carbon pressure	Reduce practice, clear waste management plans	Waste impact modeled via PLS-SEM	Reduce practice easier to apply	Tension between sustainability targets and role meaning
24	(Omer et al., 2024b)	Long working hours, unsafe physical conditions	Rest areas, safety signage, site communication tools	Site-level hazards were observable and documented	Site layout and rest provisions supported control	Physical safety and visible improvements enhanced trust
25	(Carvajal-Arango et al., 2021)	Emotional demands, unsafe conditions, repetitive tasks, lack of recognition	Recognition, social support, growth opportunities, site-level support	Subjective feedback clarified wellbeing influences	Autonomy, interpersonal support, recognition improved control	Recognition and purpose increased connection to work
26	(Techera et al., 2019)	Long shifts, extreme temperatures, physical and mental strain, inter-site travel	Peer support, rest periods, hazard awareness	Task clarity maintained, mental fatigue affects focus	Fatigue limits control, especially during long tasks	Public service creates meaning, but burnout reduces motivation
27	(Jia et al., 2019)	Heat stress, deadlines, managerial pressure, productivity push	Cool zones, peer support, union input, site initiatives	Confusing leadership signals, risk awareness	Informal practices, limited formal authority	Peer dignity, blocked by top-down priorities
28	(Ahmed et al., 2020)	Radiant heat, WBGT, physical demand, heat stress risk	Shaded areas, acclimatization zones, shift adjustment	WBGT/HSI/TWL data, acclimatization awareness	Shift rescheduling, shaded rest, worker restriction	Safety concerns, heat impacts performance
29	(Yasmeen et al., 2020)	WBGT 31.5 °C, humidity, solar heat, physical exertion	Acclimatization, rest periods, fan, ventilation	Skin temp, heart rate patterns, physiological insight	Rest scheduling, airflow, short breaks	Endurance, work commitment
30	(Jia et al., 2016)	Heat, no acclimatization, site-induced stress	Engineering controls, symptom control	Risk awareness, hazard identification	On-site infrastructure, physical response measures	Safety concern, survival motivation
31	(Eaves et al., 2016)	Physical strain, age-related demands, musculoskeletal symptoms	Ergonomics, adapted PPE, tool redesign, lifting aids, peer input	High awareness of physical risks	Body strain control through design changes	Empowerment via involvement
32	(Hsu et al., 2016)	Height, narrow space, extreme climate, high-risk tasks	Experience, physiological monitoring (HRV)	Risk awareness with cognitive clarity	Stress harder to control at elevation	Essential, skilled work; stress normalized
33	(Bendak et al., 2022)	High heat, fatigue, impaired performance, accident risk	Task batteries, seasonal data, monitoring	Clear fatigue trends, easy interpretation	Hard to manage summer fatigue	Alertness, safety, performance valued
34	(Yang et al., 2021)	High noise, communication strain, auditory stress	Binaural tools, psychoacoustic analysis, feedback	Noise types understood; long-term risks unclear	Weak control; spatial zoning needed	Mixed: accepted by some; others feel unsafe
35	(Yosef et al., 2022)	High workload, poor PPE, no training, safety risks	Observations, injury prevention advice, analysis	Injury risks known; limited factor awareness	Poor without PPE/training; risks remain high	Safety perception strongly linked to satisfaction
36	(Jiang et al., 2020)	Air, water, food, waste, noise pollution	Risk perception, proactive orientation	Experience-based interpretation; varies by group	Lower for older/female workers; limited control	Meaning through hazard recognition, esp. young/males
37	(Kordmiri et al., 2023)	Hand-transmitted vibration, noise, tool repetition, neuromuscular strain	Controlled setup, EMG tools, rest intervals	Exposure and task structure clearly defined	Rest allowed, short tasks, monitored strain	Prevention focus, awareness of dual-exposure risks
38	(Al-Bouwarthan et al., 2020)	Outdoor heat, high WBGT, dehydration, cardiovascular strain	Self-pacing, shaded areas, hydration checks, WBGT tools	Risk education, global threshold alignment	Self-pacing helped, but low environmental control	Health study boosted agency, stressed protection needs
39	(Dutta et al., 2015)	High heat, low protection, physical overload	Cooling practices, basic PPE, personal strategies	Recognized symptoms, situational awareness	Self-protection used, low control over workload	Health concerns showed risk awareness and value on safety
40	(Zhao et al., 2017)	Extreme heat, PPE use, physical workload	Cooling vest, hydration, safety monitoring	Clear conditions, relatable outcomes	Passive cooling improved recovery and tolerance	Innovation supports health, safety, and job sustainability
41	(Tennakoon et al., 2025)	Task overload, bullying, macho culture, time pressure	Supportive supervision, communication	Lack of clear communication	Low control and coping capacity	Reduced sense of value under unsupportive culture
42	(Alruqi et al., 2025)	Role pressure, unclear responsibilities, excessive workload	Limited supervision support, job stability	Multicultural and linguistic barriers	Low control due to unstable contracts	Job alienation and reduced safety motivation
43	(Biggs et al., 2025)	Role ambiguity, conflict, isolation in FIFO/DIDO sites	Supervisor support, recognition, consultation (MATES)	Improved clarity via leadership and communication training	Greater access to peer and emotional support	Strengthened belonging and purpose through engagement
44	(Zhang et al., 2025)	Cognitive–emotional load in digitalised Construction 5.0 tasks	Psychosocial support, leadership, emotional resilience	Clearer understanding of safety roles	Better ability to manage tech-driven stress	Enhanced belonging through human-centric culture
45	(Ross et al., 2025)	Bullying, unsupportive work culture	Supervisor training, resilience, toolbox sessions	Awareness of bullying behaviour	Enhanced coping and communication	Inclusion and respect strengthen value perception
46	(Ofori et al., 2025)	Ergonomic and cognitive stress from exoskeleton use	Technological assistive tools, ethical assurance	Understanding of device operation and data use	Moderate control over device comfort	Trust and fairness increase motivation
47	(van Heerden et al., 2025)	Physical workload, interpersonal conflict, long hours	Training, supportive management, career development	Clearer job roles reduce confusion	Organisational support improves coping	Recognition fosters engagement
48	(Li et al., 2025)	High safety accountability, time pressure, uncertainty	Organisational and social support	Ambiguity reduces clarity	Support buffers burnout	Supportive culture enhances role meaning
49	(Guo et al., 2025)	Psychological distress, isolation, unsafe climate	Safety communication, supportive climate	Unclear risk communication	Improved coping via guidance	Family connection reinforces wellbeing
50	(Sun et al., 2025)	Environmental stress (noise, dust, confinement)	Rest areas, ventilation, exposure controls	Poor understanding of invisible hazards	Limited control in confined tunnels	Comfort and safety perception increase satisfaction
51	(Liu et al., 2025)	Long hours, stress, unsafe or inequitable sites	Income stability, safety assurance, welfare systems	Clear expectations and fair systems	Safety and pay improve stress management	Career growth and recognition enhance purpose

No.	Article (author, year)	JDR theory		Salutogenesis theory
No.	Article (author, year)	Job Demands (JD-R)	Job resources (JD-R)	Comprehensibility	Manageability	Meaningfulness
1	(Omer et al., 2024a)	Workload, long hours, monitoring, poor conditions	Leadership, welfare, communication, transport	Structured workflow, feedback	Timely pay, safety systems	Respect, collaboration, team support
2	(Szer et al., 2022)	Heat, solar radiation, humidity, workload at height	Scaffolding covers, heat index tools (UTCI)	Weather monitoring, risk correlations	Breaks, forecast-based planning, shade/rest areas	Safer work, dignity under extreme heat
3	(Kwong et al., 2023)	Heat, noise, humidity, poor airflow	Fans, PPE, shade, rest breaks	Clear PPE use, routines	Breaks reduced strain	Safety, worker satisfaction
4	(Irfan et al., 2024)	–	Welfare (rest, hygiene, transport, safety)	Welfare improves predictability	Amenities support demand handling	Amenities enhance work value/satisfaction
5	(Radzi et al., 2023)	Workload, hours, deadlines, payment, safety risks	Welfare, food, transport, insurance, leadership, comms	Planning and communication improve task clarity	Leadership, job clarity, and welfare aid control	Leadership and welfare boost value/purpose
6	(Rani et al., 2022)	Long hours, project pressure, performance checks	Welfare facilities, site safety, health monitoring	Project planning, role clarity	Site planning, clear safety procedures	Safety support, adequate site amenities
7	(Radzi et al., 2024)	Long working hours, physical strain, site isolation	Site layout, rest areas, communication tools	Clear roles, signage, site updates	Work planning, break access	Site connection, purpose in physical work
8	(Bitencourt et al., 2021)	Extreme heat, heat waves, outdoor physical labour	–	Climate data and WBGT improve awareness	Limited mitigation mechanisms	General concern for health (policy level)
9	(Messeri et al., 2019)	Heat exposure, physical strain, migrant vulnerability	Training (formal/informal)	Varies by group – clearer for native workers	Migrants adapt despite fewer formal supports	Inferred through reporting of effort
10	(Umar and Egbu, 2020)	Excessive heat, physical strain, hypertension risks	Breaks, hydration, rescheduling, screening (suggested)	Workers aware of heat risks and related incidents	Task rescheduling, lighter clothing, shift planning (partial)	–
11	(Kurtzer et al., 2020)	Heat, weather extremes	Suggestions for environmental adjustments	Awareness of weather-related risks	Limited site-level control	Health linked to work ability
12	(Pogačar et al., 2019)	Heat waves, dehydration, physical exhaustion	Water access, peer discussion	Informal awareness of heat effects on work	Hydration, peer support	–
13	(Chan et al., 2016)	Heat, humidity, clothing discomfort	Cooling clothing, breathable fabrics	Design feedback, discomfort awareness	Prototype testing	Safety, performance
14	(Chinnadurai et al., 2016)	High heat, cardiovascular strain	PMV model, ISO standards, field interviews	Heart rate and PMV data interpretation	Indoor task adaptation	Health protection, climate planning
15	(Farshad et al., 2014)	Extreme heat, dehydration, solar radiation	No formal OHS, no rest/hydration system	Awareness via WBGT/TWL/USG indices	Lack of control, informal setting	Work necessity under poor conditions
16	(Zhang et al., 2023)	Workload, job pressure, physical strain	Welfare, PPE, safe worksite	Wellbeing dimensions, visual tools	Equipment, fair pay, team support	Fairness, support, family balance
17	(Liu et al., 2023)	Workload, task ambiguity	WHS practices	Task clarity	Work planning	–
18	(Onubi et al., 2024)	Site-level green practice requirements	On-site green skills, awareness	Clarity through SEM modeling	Support for green actions	Sustainability-oriented values
19	(Yi and Chan, 2015)	Heat, workload, solar radiation, clothing insulation, ventilation	WBGT model, heart rate data, PPE selection, rest cycle	Heat index model improves risk clarity	Index-based planning and PPE choice	Science-based care supports value of worker role
20	(Yi and Chan, 2017)	Heat, continuous physical labor, physiological strain	Smart work-rest model, WBGT thresholds, workload data	Visual tools and thresholds clarify risks	Real-time schedule adjustments possible	Personalized planning supports health and motivation
21	(Kawakami et al., 2024)	Heat, humidity, physical workload, long hours	Cooling jackets, shaded rest zones, scheduled breaks	Physiological and subjective fatigue assessment	Cooler break areas reduced heat strain	Recovery supports health, but fatigue remained
22	(Guo et al., 2019)	Heat, humidity, physical strain, risk of heat illness	Cooling vest with PCM, fans, UV-protection	Vest performance tested and explained	Reduced heat strain, improved recovery	Comfort and safety supported work performance
23	(Esmaeilifar et al., 2020)	Stress from recycle/reuse tasks, low-carbon pressure	Reduce practice, clear waste management plans	Waste impact modeled via PLS-SEM	Reduce practice easier to apply	Tension between sustainability targets and role meaning
24	(Omer et al., 2024b)	Long working hours, unsafe physical conditions	Rest areas, safety signage, site communication tools	Site-level hazards were observable and documented	Site layout and rest provisions supported control	Physical safety and visible improvements enhanced trust
25	(Carvajal-Arango et al., 2021)	Emotional demands, unsafe conditions, repetitive tasks, lack of recognition	Recognition, social support, growth opportunities, site-level support	Subjective feedback clarified wellbeing influences	Autonomy, interpersonal support, recognition improved control	Recognition and purpose increased connection to work
26	(Techera et al., 2019)	Long shifts, extreme temperatures, physical and mental strain, inter-site travel	Peer support, rest periods, hazard awareness	Task clarity maintained, mental fatigue affects focus	Fatigue limits control, especially during long tasks	Public service creates meaning, but burnout reduces motivation
27	(Jia et al., 2019)	Heat stress, deadlines, managerial pressure, productivity push	Cool zones, peer support, union input, site initiatives	Confusing leadership signals, risk awareness	Informal practices, limited formal authority	Peer dignity, blocked by top-down priorities
28	(Ahmed et al., 2020)	Radiant heat, WBGT, physical demand, heat stress risk	Shaded areas, acclimatization zones, shift adjustment	WBGT/HSI/TWL data, acclimatization awareness	Shift rescheduling, shaded rest, worker restriction	Safety concerns, heat impacts performance
29	(Yasmeen et al., 2020)	WBGT 31.5 °C, humidity, solar heat, physical exertion	Acclimatization, rest periods, fan, ventilation	Skin temp, heart rate patterns, physiological insight	Rest scheduling, airflow, short breaks	Endurance, work commitment
30	(Jia et al., 2016)	Heat, no acclimatization, site-induced stress	Engineering controls, symptom control	Risk awareness, hazard identification	On-site infrastructure, physical response measures	Safety concern, survival motivation
31	(Eaves et al., 2016)	Physical strain, age-related demands, musculoskeletal symptoms	Ergonomics, adapted PPE, tool redesign, lifting aids, peer input	High awareness of physical risks	Body strain control through design changes	Empowerment via involvement
32	(Hsu et al., 2016)	Height, narrow space, extreme climate, high-risk tasks	Experience, physiological monitoring (HRV)	Risk awareness with cognitive clarity	Stress harder to control at elevation	Essential, skilled work; stress normalized
33	(Bendak et al., 2022)	High heat, fatigue, impaired performance, accident risk	Task batteries, seasonal data, monitoring	Clear fatigue trends, easy interpretation	Hard to manage summer fatigue	Alertness, safety, performance valued
34	(Yang et al., 2021)	High noise, communication strain, auditory stress	Binaural tools, psychoacoustic analysis, feedback	Noise types understood; long-term risks unclear	Weak control; spatial zoning needed	Mixed: accepted by some; others feel unsafe
35	(Yosef et al., 2022)	High workload, poor PPE, no training, safety risks	Observations, injury prevention advice, analysis	Injury risks known; limited factor awareness	Poor without PPE/training; risks remain high	Safety perception strongly linked to satisfaction
36	(Jiang et al., 2020)	Air, water, food, waste, noise pollution	Risk perception, proactive orientation	Experience-based interpretation; varies by group	Lower for older/female workers; limited control	Meaning through hazard recognition, esp. young/males
37	(Kordmiri et al., 2023)	Hand-transmitted vibration, noise, tool repetition, neuromuscular strain	Controlled setup, EMG tools, rest intervals	Exposure and task structure clearly defined	Rest allowed, short tasks, monitored strain	Prevention focus, awareness of dual-exposure risks
38	(Al-Bouwarthan et al., 2020)	Outdoor heat, high WBGT, dehydration, cardiovascular strain	Self-pacing, shaded areas, hydration checks, WBGT tools	Risk education, global threshold alignment	Self-pacing helped, but low environmental control	Health study boosted agency, stressed protection needs
39	(Dutta et al., 2015)	High heat, low protection, physical overload	Cooling practices, basic PPE, personal strategies	Recognized symptoms, situational awareness	Self-protection used, low control over workload	Health concerns showed risk awareness and value on safety
40	(Zhao et al., 2017)	Extreme heat, PPE use, physical workload	Cooling vest, hydration, safety monitoring	Clear conditions, relatable outcomes	Passive cooling improved recovery and tolerance	Innovation supports health, safety, and job sustainability
41	(Tennakoon et al., 2025)	Task overload, bullying, macho culture, time pressure	Supportive supervision, communication	Lack of clear communication	Low control and coping capacity	Reduced sense of value under unsupportive culture
42	(Alruqi et al., 2025)	Role pressure, unclear responsibilities, excessive workload	Limited supervision support, job stability	Multicultural and linguistic barriers	Low control due to unstable contracts	Job alienation and reduced safety motivation
43	(Biggs et al., 2025)	Role ambiguity, conflict, isolation in FIFO/DIDO sites	Supervisor support, recognition, consultation (MATES)	Improved clarity via leadership and communication training	Greater access to peer and emotional support	Strengthened belonging and purpose through engagement
44	(Zhang et al., 2025)	Cognitive–emotional load in digitalised Construction 5.0 tasks	Psychosocial support, leadership, emotional resilience	Clearer understanding of safety roles	Better ability to manage tech-driven stress	Enhanced belonging through human-centric culture
45	(Ross et al., 2025)	Bullying, unsupportive work culture	Supervisor training, resilience, toolbox sessions	Awareness of bullying behaviour	Enhanced coping and communication	Inclusion and respect strengthen value perception
46	(Ofori et al., 2025)	Ergonomic and cognitive stress from exoskeleton use	Technological assistive tools, ethical assurance	Understanding of device operation and data use	Moderate control over device comfort	Trust and fairness increase motivation
47	(van Heerden et al., 2025)	Physical workload, interpersonal conflict, long hours	Training, supportive management, career development	Clearer job roles reduce confusion	Organisational support improves coping	Recognition fosters engagement
48	(Li et al., 2025)	High safety accountability, time pressure, uncertainty	Organisational and social support	Ambiguity reduces clarity	Support buffers burnout	Supportive culture enhances role meaning
49	(Guo et al., 2025)	Psychological distress, isolation, unsafe climate	Safety communication, supportive climate	Unclear risk communication	Improved coping via guidance	Family connection reinforces wellbeing
50	(Sun et al., 2025)	Environmental stress (noise, dust, confinement)	Rest areas, ventilation, exposure controls	Poor understanding of invisible hazards	Limited control in confined tunnels	Comfort and safety perception increase satisfaction
51	(Liu et al., 2025)	Long hours, stress, unsafe or inequitable sites	Income stability, safety assurance, welfare systems	Clear expectations and fair systems	Safety and pay improve stress management	Career growth and recognition enhance purpose

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