Table 2 Mapping of TOE framework... | Emerald Publishing

Table 2

Mapping of TOE framework dimensions to identified factors and examples

Themes	Subthemes	Findings from interviews	Illustrative quotes/sources
Technological (T)
Perceived demand inside warehouses	Perceived usefulness, automation potential, high labor cost	Optimism about drones for inventory scanning and intra-organizational logistics, especially in large warehouses	“We have clients who are increasingly adopting aerial drones in warehousing. As large companies like Amazon establish themselves, they will definitely be implementing drones for stocktaking operations.”
Perceived benefits/key functional areas inside warehouses	Perceived benefits Automating repetitive tasks, reducing human error, cost-effective, Warehouse Management System integration Functional operations Stocktake, cycle counting, item picking, shelf audits	Benefits include higher accuracy, speed and cost reduction Primary applications: stocktaking, cycle counting, item retrieval, and shelf audits	“Your biggest cost is manpower. One of the biggest downsides to that is inventory accuracy, and I think that is where the drones are currently playing a big role in being able to quickly and efficiently scan high rise pallets or stock.” “Drones are proven to be useful, not just for stocktaking but also for quickly locating items and improving inventory flow.”
Perceived barriers inside warehouses	Multi-layer pallet difficulty, battery life, payload limits, operator proximity safety	Conventional multi-layer pallet layouts are difficult to scan; safety risks persist in mixed human–drone environments	“Irrespective of how automated a warehouse is, you would still have operators on the floor, and drones operating within the warehouse is a risk.”
Perceived demand for last-mile delivery	Defined delivery radius, flights per hour, hub proximity to retail, standardized parcel boxes	Strong support in rural/suburban areas; drone providers extend value chain beyond transport into logistics	“We build bridges between points, so we have point A, point B and there is an air corridor that connects these points. So, it's like a hub-to-hub approach.”
Perceived benefits and barriers for last-mile delivery	Perceived benefits Speed, cost reduction, reduced congestion Perceived barriers Privacy, infrastructure, connectivity, regulation, low battery capacity	Usefulness tied to reduced congestion and faster delivery Limited urban viability due to airspace and regulatory challenges	“As we use the technology more and we apply it to the logistics sector, it will build up to arrive as close as possible to people's homes. Without noise and privacy concerns and very fast.” “The problem with doorstep delivery is of course infrastructure. It's not every house you can go to, and you cannot deliver at anybody's door.”
Organizational (O)
Operator's expertise	Operator skillsets, technology readiness, regulatory alignment, qualified trainers	Skills gap identified; logistics firms often lack technical frameworks; profitable operations depend on vertical integration or collaboration	“We have achieved 30,000 flights this year with no accidents; the cost is a fraction of alternatives.”
Governance models	Governance and ownership models In-house vs outsourced operations, collaboration at the interface, economic factors, operational factors Management priorities Internal organization and management priorities, ROI	Large 3PLs prefer internal integration; smaller firms explore partnerships. Hybrid docking-station models are emerging	“Offering drone operations as a service would be beneficial – the provider acts just like any other carrier.” “Top-management support and ROI are critical in shaping adoption strategy. Our throughputs are significant. For us, the investment is not so much the bottleneck, it's more where's the benefit to the customer rather than just throughput.”
Environmental (E)
Low-altitude operations and emerging case for LAAM systems	Low-altitude management system Airspace traffic management, fee structure, economic feasibility, geofencing Infrastructure availability BVLOS, vertiports, air corridors, geolocation Regulatory frameworks Regulatory constraints, government policies, airspace rules, drone corridor approvals	Commercial drone traffic requires national-level air traffic control or tolling systems; standardized BVLOS approvals and air corridors urgently needed	“In Brazil we have 172,000 drones registered – the only way to manage that is an intelligent system.” “Multiple UTM systems that compete between themselves because you want to have economy competition like pricing service. Quick in response and having a very smart algorithm that can change the route” “There definitely needs to be clear regulations for people to fly aircraft, unmanned aircraft and drones. And at the moment that is not clear.”
Need for ecosystem level standards and coordination across warehousing and delivery	Collaborative governance, complexity of drone approvals and certification requirements, ongoing support for technology advancement, shared airspace systems	National drone operating standards needed inside and outside warehouses; siloed innovation must evolve toward shared infrastructure and collaboration	“We've got great technology and capable teams. However, most warehouses don't really know how drones fit into their operations yet, so we end up running our own trials. We hope collaboration comes as the industry matures.”

Themes	Subthemes	Findings from interviews	Illustrative quotes/sources
Technological (T)
Perceived demand inside warehouses	Perceived usefulness, automation potential, high labor cost	Optimism about drones for inventory scanning and intra-organizational logistics, especially in large warehouses	“We have clients who are increasingly adopting aerial drones in warehousing. As large companies like Amazon establish themselves, they will definitely be implementing drones for stocktaking operations.”
Perceived benefits/key functional areas inside warehouses	Perceived benefitsAutomating repetitive tasks, reducing human error, cost-effective, Warehouse Management System integrationFunctional operationsStocktake, cycle counting, item picking, shelf audits	Benefits include higher accuracy, speed and cost reductionPrimary applications: stocktaking, cycle counting, item retrieval, and shelf audits	“Your biggest cost is manpower. One of the biggest downsides to that is inventory accuracy, and I think that is where the drones are currently playing a big role in being able to quickly and efficiently scan high rise pallets or stock.”“Drones are proven to be useful, not just for stocktaking but also for quickly locating items and improving inventory flow.”
Perceived barriers inside warehouses	Multi-layer pallet difficulty, battery life, payload limits, operator proximity safety	Conventional multi-layer pallet layouts are difficult to scan; safety risks persist in mixed human–drone environments	“Irrespective of how automated a warehouse is, you would still have operators on the floor, and drones operating within the warehouse is a risk.”
Perceived demand for last-mile delivery	Defined delivery radius, flights per hour, hub proximity to retail, standardized parcel boxes	Strong support in rural/suburban areas; drone providers extend value chain beyond transport into logistics	“We build bridges between points, so we have point A, point B and there is an air corridor that connects these points. So, it's like a hub-to-hub approach.”
Perceived benefits and barriers for last-mile delivery	Perceived benefitsSpeed, cost reduction, reduced congestionPerceived barriersPrivacy, infrastructure, connectivity, regulation, low battery capacity	Usefulness tied to reduced congestion and faster deliveryLimited urban viability due to airspace and regulatory challenges	“As we use the technology more and we apply it to the logistics sector, it will build up to arrive as close as possible to people's homes. Without noise and privacy concerns and very fast.”“The problem with doorstep delivery is of course infrastructure. It's not every house you can go to, and you cannot deliver at anybody's door.”
Organizational (O)
Operator's expertise	Operator skillsets, technology readiness, regulatory alignment, qualified trainers	Skills gap identified; logistics firms often lack technical frameworks; profitable operations depend on vertical integration or collaboration	“We have achieved 30,000 flights this year with no accidents; the cost is a fraction of alternatives.”
Governance models	Governance and ownership modelsIn-house vs outsourced operations, collaboration at the interface, economic factors, operational factorsManagement prioritiesInternal organization and management priorities, ROI	Large 3PLs prefer internal integration; smaller firms explore partnerships. Hybrid docking-station models are emerging	“Offering drone operations as a service would be beneficial – the provider acts just like any other carrier.”“Top-management support and ROI are critical in shaping adoption strategy. Our throughputs are significant. For us, the investment is not so much the bottleneck, it's more where's the benefit to the customer rather than just throughput.”
Environmental (E)
Low-altitude operations and emerging case for LAAM systems	Low-altitude management systemAirspace traffic management, fee structure, economic feasibility, geofencingInfrastructure availabilityBVLOS, vertiports, air corridors, geolocationRegulatory frameworksRegulatory constraints, government policies, airspace rules, drone corridor approvals	Commercial drone traffic requires national-level air traffic control or tolling systems; standardized BVLOS approvals and air corridors urgently needed	“In Brazil we have 172,000 drones registered – the only way to manage that is an intelligent system.”“Multiple UTM systems that compete between themselves because you want to have economy competition like pricing service. Quick in response and having a very smart algorithm that can change the route”“There definitely needs to be clear regulations for people to fly aircraft, unmanned aircraft and drones. And at the moment that is not clear.”
Need for ecosystem level standards and coordination across warehousing and delivery	Collaborative governance, complexity of drone approvals and certification requirements, ongoing support for technology advancement, shared airspace systems	National drone operating standards needed inside and outside warehouses; siloed innovation must evolve toward shared infrastructure and collaboration	“We've got great technology and capable teams. However, most warehouses don't really know how drones fit into their operations yet, so we end up running our own trials. We hope collaboration comes as the industry matures.”

Source(s): Authors’ own work