Table 2

Enabling factors and dynamic capabilities of AI at the individual and organisational levels

Dynamic capability categoryIndividual levelInteraction mechanismOrganisational level
Sensing
Second-order themes
First-order informant terms
Awareness and skills development
  • +

    Individuals recognise the potential of AI through personal interest

  • +

    AI-related skills through training, education, and small-scale testing

Bottom-up: Mentorship and labs
  • +

    Mentoring programmes to develop individual AI competencies to foster skills development

  • +

    General innovation labs where individuals can experiment with AI technologies

  • +

    Active and encouraging communication about pilots

  • +

    Sector-specific collaborative platforms for sharing good practices

Top-down: Knowledge sharing and external expertise
  • +

    Knowledge dissemination through workshops and external consultants

  • +

    Encouraging proactive identification of AI opportunities

  • +

    Strategic partnership consultancy model for sensing activities

  • +

    Peer support among public actors

  • +

    Free access to easy-to-use and continuously improving general AI tools

  • +

    Example set by leaders

Strategic alignments
  • +

    Management support

  • +

    Continuous market and supplier scanning to find relevant AI solutions and practices

  • +

    Organisational small-scale proofs of concept

  • +

    Integrating AI awareness into strategic vision

  • +

    The combination of digitalisation and project management provides a solid basis for AI adoption

  • +

    Clear and AI-positive organisational policies on data protection and AI security

  • +

    Positive societal pressure

  • +

    Reform of the Administrative Act to use automation in the public sector

Seizing
Second-order themes
First-order informant terms
Idea generation and experimentation
  • +

    Encouraging individuals to brainstorm AI opportunities together

  • +

    Empowering individuals to experiment with AI solutions and take calculated risks

Bottom-up: Collaborative planning and pilot programmes
  • +

    Development-oriented personnel

  • +

    Integration of individual contributions into strategic planning

  • +

    Creating cross-functional teams to integrate individual insights into evaluating AI initiatives

  • +

    Facilitating small-scale AI pilot projects to test feasibility and gather data for larger implementation

  • +

    Organisational platform for horizontal knowledge sharing and collaboration

Top-down: AI partnership or do-it-yourself models
  • +

    Large-language-model (LLM)-centric partnership model relying on a single language model

  • +

    Open and modular multi-vendor partnership model

  • +

    Organisationally tailored and secure do-it-yourself AI model based on open or closed language models

Strategy, scalability and organisational leadership 
  • +

    Strategy

  • +

    Management support

  • +

    Experimentation culture

  • +

    Implementation and prioritisation principles of AI initiatives and resource allocation

  • +

    Accessibility of data and continuous improvement of data quality

  • +

    Leadership action plan focusing on organisational AI adoption

Trans-forming
Second-order themes
First-order informant terms
Adaptability and innovation
  • +

    Wide exploitation of general language models and tools at the individual level

  • +

    Encouraging a mindset of continuous learning and flexibility among employees

  • +

    Fostering a culture that values creativity and innovative thinking

Bottom-up: Adoption of AI-driven practices
  • +

    Adoption of new AI-driven practices with general AI tools

  • +

    Adoption of individual sector-specific AI solutions for targeted needs

Top-down: Implementation of new AI-driven solutions and processes
  • +

    Successful tendering of AI solutions/partnerships to enable further implementation

  • +

    Successful implementation of AI projects and/or AI updates to existing solutions

  • +

    Implementation of change management practices

  • +

    Implementing a mechanism to regularly collect feedback and ROI in AI projects

Structural change and commitment
  • +

    Management support

  • +

    Dynamic organisational culture

  • +

    Modifying organisational structures and processes to better integrate AI capabilities

  • +

    Dynamic resource reallocation to AI initiatives

  • +

    Commitment to AI by embedding it into organisational culture and practices

  • +

    Regular feedback systems to align individual AI capabilities with organisational goals

  • +

    Establishing processes to scale successful AI pilots across the organisation

  • +

    Organisation’s procurement maturity

Source(s): Authors' own work

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