Table 2. Sectoral comparison of...

Table 2.

Sectoral comparison of individual AI adoption barriers

Code	Barrier	Wellbeing services	Technical services	t(df) (Welch)	p (two-sided)	Hedges’ g [95% CI]
		M (SD), n	M (SD), n
Ability barriers
A1 †	Competence uncertainty	1.72 (1.14), n = 232	1.20 (0.97), n = 84	3.87 (171.0)	< 0.001	0.46 [0.20, 0.71]
A2 †	Limited knowledge of apps	2.38 (0.89), n = 232	1.94 (1.05), n = 84	3.43 (129.0)	< 0.001	0.47 [0.22, 0.72]
A3	Perceived difficulty of use	1.22 (1.07), n = 206	0.94 (0.84), n = 51	2.00 (95.2)	0.048	0.27 [−0.04, 0.58]
A4	Negative prior experiences	0.44 (0.80), n = 202	0.55 (0.86), n = 66	−0.87 (104.4)	0.385	−0.13 [−0.41, 0.15]
Motivation barriers
M1	Unclear concrete benefits	2.31 (0.93), n = 219	2.13 (0.99), n = 78	1.39 (129.0)	0.167	0.19 [−0.07, 0.45]
M2 †	Doubts about accuracy and reliability	1.54 (1.10), n = 218	2.13 (0.98), n = 82	−4.55 (162.5)	< 0.001	−0.56 [−0.82, −0.30]
M3	Security/privacy concerns	1.71 (1.16), n = 224	1.96 (1.02), n = 80	−1.86 (155.9)	0.065	−0.23 [−0.48, 0.03]
M4	Ethical concerns	1.65 (1.16), n = 224	1.73 (1.12), n = 75	−0.57 (131.0)	0.569	−0.08 [−0.34, 0.19]
M5	Concern that work tasks will change substantially due to AI	1.01 (1.07), n = 218	0.79 (0.95), n = 81	1.76 (160.4)	0.081	0.22 [−0.04, 0.47]
M6	Fear of expertise devaluation	0.75 (1.02), n = 220	0.61 (0.80), n = 79	1.25 (173.4)	0.213	0.15 [−0.11, 0.40]
Opportunity barriers
O1	Insufficient time to learn	1.86 (1.09), n = 232	1.82 (1.03), n = 83	0.32 (153.1)	0.749	0.04 [−0.21, 0.29]
O2 †	Absence of guidelines/policies	2.15 (0.96), n = 224	1.38 (1.14), n = 79	5.40 (119.9)	< 0.001	0.76 [0.50, 1.02]
O3	Lack of suitable apps	2.06 (1.00), n = 214	1.84 (1.15), n = 67	1.44 (99.5)	0.153	0.22 [−0.06, 0.49]
O4 †	Inadequate training	2.36 (0.93), n = 231	1.78 (1.05), n = 83	4.43 (130.8)	< 0.001	0.60 [0.34, 0.85]
O5 †	Limited colleague/supervisor encouragement	1.55 (1.12), n = 218	0.81 (0.93), n = 77	5.71 (158.7)	< 0.001	0.69 [0.43, 0.96]
O6 †	Inadequate peer support	1.99 (1.02), n = 221	1.22 (1.00), n = 78	5.80 (136.7)	< 0.001	0.76 [0.49, 1.02]
O7 †	Materials not in digital format	1.61 (1.07), n = 199	1.12 (1.05), n = 59	3.16 (96.5)	0.002	0.46 [0.17, 0.75]
O8	Lack of IT support	1.69 (1.10), n = 205	1.33 (1.11), n = 69	2.30 (116.7)	0.023	0.32 [0.05, 0.59]
O9	Accountability uncertainty	1.76 (1.09), n = 222	1.86 (1.07), n = 73	−0.70 (124.2)	0.484	−0.09 [−0.36, 0.17]

Code	Barrier	Wellbeing services	Technical services	t(df) (Welch)	p (two-sided)	Hedges’ g [95% CI]
		M (SD), n	M (SD), n
Ability barriers
A1 †	Competence uncertainty	1.72 (1.14), n = 232	1.20 (0.97), n = 84	3.87 (171.0)	< 0.001	0.46 [0.20, 0.71]
A2 †	Limited knowledge of apps	2.38 (0.89), n = 232	1.94 (1.05), n = 84	3.43 (129.0)	< 0.001	0.47 [0.22, 0.72]
A3	Perceived difficulty of use	1.22 (1.07), n = 206	0.94 (0.84), n = 51	2.00 (95.2)	0.048	0.27 [−0.04, 0.58]
A4	Negative prior experiences	0.44 (0.80), n = 202	0.55 (0.86), n = 66	−0.87 (104.4)	0.385	−0.13 [−0.41, 0.15]
Motivation barriers
M1	Unclear concrete benefits	2.31 (0.93), n = 219	2.13 (0.99), n = 78	1.39 (129.0)	0.167	0.19 [−0.07, 0.45]
M2 †	Doubts about accuracy and reliability	1.54 (1.10), n = 218	2.13 (0.98), n = 82	−4.55 (162.5)	< 0.001	−0.56 [−0.82, −0.30]
M3	Security/privacy concerns	1.71 (1.16), n = 224	1.96 (1.02), n = 80	−1.86 (155.9)	0.065	−0.23 [−0.48, 0.03]
M4	Ethical concerns	1.65 (1.16), n = 224	1.73 (1.12), n = 75	−0.57 (131.0)	0.569	−0.08 [−0.34, 0.19]
M5	Concern that work tasks will change substantially due to AI	1.01 (1.07), n = 218	0.79 (0.95), n = 81	1.76 (160.4)	0.081	0.22 [−0.04, 0.47]
M6	Fear of expertise devaluation	0.75 (1.02), n = 220	0.61 (0.80), n = 79	1.25 (173.4)	0.213	0.15 [−0.11, 0.40]
Opportunity barriers
O1	Insufficient time to learn	1.86 (1.09), n = 232	1.82 (1.03), n = 83	0.32 (153.1)	0.749	0.04 [−0.21, 0.29]
O2 †	Absence of guidelines/policies	2.15 (0.96), n = 224	1.38 (1.14), n = 79	5.40 (119.9)	< 0.001	0.76 [0.50, 1.02]
O3	Lack of suitable apps	2.06 (1.00), n = 214	1.84 (1.15), n = 67	1.44 (99.5)	0.153	0.22 [−0.06, 0.49]
O4 †	Inadequate training	2.36 (0.93), n = 231	1.78 (1.05), n = 83	4.43 (130.8)	< 0.001	0.60 [0.34, 0.85]
O5 †	Limited colleague/supervisor encouragement	1.55 (1.12), n = 218	0.81 (0.93), n = 77	5.71 (158.7)	< 0.001	0.69 [0.43, 0.96]
O6 †	Inadequate peer support	1.99 (1.02), n = 221	1.22 (1.00), n = 78	5.80 (136.7)	< 0.001	0.76 [0.49, 1.02]
O7 †	Materials not in digital format	1.61 (1.07), n = 199	1.12 (1.05), n = 59	3.16 (96.5)	0.002	0.46 [0.17, 0.75]
O8	Lack of IT support	1.69 (1.10), n = 205	1.33 (1.11), n = 69	2.30 (116.7)	0.023	0.32 [0.05, 0.59]
O9	Accountability uncertainty	1.76 (1.09), n = 222	1.86 (1.07), n = 73	−0.70 (124.2)	0.484	−0.09 [−0.36, 0.17]

Note(s):

Welch’s t-test was used throughout to accommodate unequal variances; t-values are reported to two decimal places, and degrees of freedom to one decimal place. Hedges’ g is reported with 95% confidence intervals; n varies across items due to “do not know” responses being treated as missing. Items marked with † remained significant after Holm–Bonferroni correction and under Mann–Whitney U re-estimation; these constitute the core results. Sector labels denote the two sample configurations described in the Comparative design subsection

Source(s): Authors’ own work

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