Physical, geotechnical and mineralogical characteristics of tailings – a comparison
| Tailings type | FC: % | D50: mm | Cu | Ccr | Gs | ϕ′cs: deg | Main minerals | Particle shape | CSL format | Transitional behaviour |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CoT –copper (current study) | 47·5 | 0·082 | 26·7 | 1·7 | 2·814 | 36·0 (TC) / 36·1 (SS) | 17·9% Qtz; 28·4% Alb; 8·3% Feld; 4·9% Bio; 10·1% Chlo; 14·2% Acti; 6·3% Mag | Massive subangular/rotund particles with some flocs around bulky particles | Curved (TC and SS) | Yes (TC) / No (SS) |
| CoP – copper (current study) | 42·3 | 0·082 | 15·9 | 5·1 | 3·149 | 34·6 (TC) / 34·8 (SS) | 16·4% Qtz; 4·5% Alb; 3·9% Feld; 23·6% Bio; 15·4% Chlo; 12·0% Grun; 9·1% Gar; 7·9% Mag | Subangular particles formed by stacking flocky particles (foliated particles) with some flocs bridging bulky particles | Linear (TC and SS) | No |
| Copper upper beach (Velten et al., 2024) | 12·5 | 0·276 | 9·98 | 2·45 | 2·844 | 36·9 | 25·1% Qtz; 33·5% Feld; 8·4% Scp; 5·8% Amp; 5·8 Chlo; 5·3% Bio; 3·0% Mag | Curved (TC) | Yes | |
| Copper lower beach (Velten et al., 2024) | 25·5 | 0·104 | 8·08 | 2·14 | 2·943 | 35·7 | 25·1% Qtz; 33·5% Feld; 8·4% Scp; 5·8% Amp; 5·8 Chlo; 5·3% Bio; 3·0% Mag | Curved (TC) | Yes | |
| Copper S1 (Vergaray et al., 2023) | 15 | 0·21 | 4·49 | — | 2·70 | 38·0 | Curved (TC) | No | ||
| Copper S2 (Vergaray et al., 2023) | 38 | 0·12 | 11·47 | — | 2·60 | 37·8 | Curved (TC) | No | ||
| Copper S3 (Vergaray et al., 2023) | 75 | 0·05 | 13·90 | — | 2·75 | 36·6 | Curved (TC) | No | ||
| Copper TSF2 (Karim et al., 2023) | 3 | 0·482 | 3·6 | 1·39 | 2·682 | 28·0 | 32% Qtz; 30% Alb; 23% Mu3T; 12% Micr; 2% Kaol; 1% clin | Angular and rough-surfaced (coarse particles) and flocky particles (finer particles) | Curved (DSS) | No |
| Deixing copper (Li, 2017) | 95 | 0·031 | 5·1 | 1·5 | 3·75 | 35·2 | 78% Fay; 22% Mag | Angular and subangular particles, mainly platy particles in the silt size | Curved (TC) | No |
| Brazilian gold (Bedin et al., 2012) | 65 | 0·065 | 6·9 | 2·3 | 2·89–3·20 | 33·0 | 27% Qtz; 25% Alb; 35% Chlo | Bulky, angular, and subangular particles with flocs around them | Curved (TC) | No |
| Brazilian gold (Li et al., 2018) | 95 | 0·011 | 7·3 | 1·4 | 2·89 | 34·8 | 27% Qtz; 25% Alb; 35% Chlo | Bulky, angular, and subangular particles with flocs around them | Curved (TC) | No |
| Panzhihua UB – iron (Li, 2017) | 19 | 0·220 | 10·4 | 2·6 | 3·37 | 34·6 | 30% Dio; 32% Lab; 11% Hrb; 9% Chlo | Bulky, angular, and subangular particles | Curved (TC) | No |
| Panzhihua MB – iron (Li, 2017) | 68 | 0·035 | 10·0 | 1·1 | 3·14 | 33·7 | 46% Dio; 40% Lab; 6% Hrb; 5% Chlo | Bulky, angular, and subangular particles | Curved (TC) | No |
| Panzhihua PO — iron (Li, 2017) | 93 | 0·023 | 6·7 | 2·2 | 3·11 | 34·8 | 28% Dio; 24% Lab; 22% Hrb; 16% Chlo | Bulky, angular, and subangular particles, but flatter and more elongated | Linear (TC) | No |
| Iron-flotation (Consoli et al., 2024) | 38·6 | 0·094 | 6·5 | 1·87 | 2·83 | 32·2 | 98·3% Qtz; 1·7% Haema | Curved (TC) | No | |
| Iron-slimes (Consoli et al., 2024) | 86·2 | 0·036 | 9·3 | 2·15 | 4·02 | 33·4 | 54·8% Qtz; 42·3% Haema; 2·9% Kaol | Curved (TC) | No | |
| Iron-S1 (Wagner et al., 2023) | 52·2 | 0·068 | 8·8 | 1·80 | 3·05 | 34·6 (TC) / 35·8 (TE) | 76·2% Qtz; 20·9% Ioxi | Higher quantities of bulky particles (large, subangular and subrounded shape) surrounded by flocs (collections of clay-sized particles). | Curved (TC and TE) | No |
| Iron-S2 (Wagner et al., 2023) | 33·3 | 0·100 | 3·2 | 0·90 | 2·97 | 33·4 (TC) / 34·8 (TE) | 78·4% Qtz; 17·2% Ioxi | Higher quantities of bulky particles (large, subangular and subrounded shape) | Curved (TC and TE) | No |
| Tailings type | FC: % | Main minerals | Particle shape | Transitional behaviour | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CoT –copper (current study) | 47·5 | 0·082 | 26·7 | 1·7 | 2·814 | 36·0 ( | 17·9% Qtz; 28·4% Alb; 8·3% Feld; 4·9% Bio; 10·1% Chlo; 14·2% Acti; 6·3% Mag | Massive subangular/rotund particles with some flocs around bulky particles | Curved ( | Yes ( |
| CoP – copper (current study) | 42·3 | 0·082 | 15·9 | 5·1 | 3·149 | 34·6 ( | 16·4% Qtz; 4·5% Alb; 3·9% Feld; 23·6% Bio; 15·4% Chlo; 12·0% Grun; 9·1% Gar; 7·9% Mag | Subangular particles formed by stacking flocky particles (foliated particles) with some flocs bridging bulky particles | Linear ( | No |
| Copper upper beach ( | 12·5 | 0·276 | 9·98 | 2·45 | 2·844 | 36·9 | 25·1% Qtz; 33·5% Feld; 8·4% Scp; 5·8% Amp; 5·8 Chlo; 5·3% Bio; 3·0% Mag | Curved ( | Yes | |
| Copper lower beach ( | 25·5 | 0·104 | 8·08 | 2·14 | 2·943 | 35·7 | 25·1% Qtz; 33·5% Feld; 8·4% Scp; 5·8% Amp; 5·8 Chlo; 5·3% Bio; 3·0% Mag | Curved ( | Yes | |
| Copper S1 ( | 15 | 0·21 | 4·49 | — | 2·70 | 38·0 | Curved ( | No | ||
| Copper S2 ( | 38 | 0·12 | 11·47 | — | 2·60 | 37·8 | Curved ( | No | ||
| Copper S3 ( | 75 | 0·05 | 13·90 | — | 2·75 | 36·6 | Curved ( | No | ||
| Copper TSF2 ( | 3 | 0·482 | 3·6 | 1·39 | 2·682 | 28·0 | 32% Qtz; 30% Alb; 23% Mu3T; 12% Micr; 2% Kaol; 1% clin | Angular and rough-surfaced (coarse particles) and flocky particles (finer particles) | Curved ( | No |
| Deixing copper ( | 95 | 0·031 | 5·1 | 1·5 | 3·75 | 35·2 | 78% Fay; 22% Mag | Angular and subangular particles, mainly platy particles in the silt size | Curved ( | No |
| Brazilian gold ( | 65 | 0·065 | 6·9 | 2·3 | 2·89–3·20 | 33·0 | 27% Qtz; 25% Alb; 35% Chlo | Bulky, angular, and subangular particles with flocs around them | Curved ( | No |
| Brazilian gold ( | 95 | 0·011 | 7·3 | 1·4 | 2·89 | 34·8 | 27% Qtz; 25% Alb; 35% Chlo | Bulky, angular, and subangular particles with flocs around them | Curved ( | No |
| Panzhihua | 19 | 0·220 | 10·4 | 2·6 | 3·37 | 34·6 | 30% Dio; 32% Lab; 11% Hrb; 9% Chlo | Bulky, angular, and subangular particles | Curved ( | No |
| Panzhihua | 68 | 0·035 | 10·0 | 1·1 | 3·14 | 33·7 | 46% Dio; 40% Lab; 6% Hrb; 5% Chlo | Bulky, angular, and subangular particles | Curved ( | No |
| Panzhihua | 93 | 0·023 | 6·7 | 2·2 | 3·11 | 34·8 | 28% Dio; 24% Lab; 22% Hrb; 16% Chlo | Bulky, angular, and subangular particles, but flatter and more elongated | Linear ( | No |
| Iron-flotation ( | 38·6 | 0·094 | 6·5 | 1·87 | 2·83 | 32·2 | 98·3% Qtz; 1·7% Haema | Curved ( | No | |
| Iron-slimes ( | 86·2 | 0·036 | 9·3 | 2·15 | 4·02 | 33·4 | 54·8% Qtz; 42·3% Haema; 2·9% Kaol | Curved ( | No | |
| Iron-S1 ( | 52·2 | 0·068 | 8·8 | 1·80 | 3·05 | 34·6 ( | 76·2% Qtz; 20·9% Ioxi | Higher quantities of bulky particles (large, subangular and subrounded shape) surrounded by flocs (collections of clay-sized particles). | Curved ( | No |
| Iron-S2 ( | 33·3 | 0·100 | 3·2 | 0·90 | 2·97 | 33·4 ( | 78·4% Qtz; 17·2% Ioxi | Higher quantities of bulky particles (large, subangular and subrounded shape) | Curved ( | No |
FC, fine content; D50, mean particle size; Cu, uniformity coefficient; Ccr, coefficient of curvature; Gs, specific gravity; ϕ′cs, critical state friction angle; TC, triaxial compression; DSS, direct simple shear; SS, simple shear; Minerals: Qtz, quartz (tectosilicate); Feld, feldspar (tectosilicate); Alb, albite (feldspar group – tectosilicate); Lab, Labradorite (feldspar group – tectosilicate); Micr. microcline (feldspar group – tectosilicate); Scp, scapolite (tectosilicate); Mu3T, muscovite-3T (mica group – phyllosilicate); Chl, chlorite (chlorite group – phyllosilicate); Clin, clinochlore (chlorite group – phyllosilicate); Bio, biotite (mica group – phyllosilicate); Kaol, kaolinite (clay group – phyllosilicate); Acti, actinolite (amphibole group – inosilicate double chain); Grun, grunerite (amphibole group – inosilicate double chain); Amp, amphibole (inosilicate double chain); Hrb, hornblende (amphibole group – inosilicate double chain); Dio, diopside (pyroxene group – inosilicate single chain); Gar, garnet (nesosilicate); Fay, fayalite (olivine group – nesosilicate); Mag, magnetite (iron oxide); Haem, haematite (iron oxide); Ioxi, iron oxide; Cal, calcite (calcium carbonate); Dol, dolomite (calcium–magnesium carbonate)
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