Table 3 Key themes identified through... | Emerald Publishing

Table 3

Key themes identified through data analysis

Number	Theme	Description	Challenges	Solutions
1	Limited Access to Technological Infrastructure	Inadequate internet, electricity, and learning spaces affect teaching and learning	- Online: Unstable internet, electricity outages - Underground: Small or no physical space, no digital appliances	- Online: Recorded videos, solar charging, audio calls, family-based learning groups - Underground: Teach mixed-grade students together, use homes as classrooms
2	Economic Hardship and Financial Accessibility	Poverty limits access to education tools, fees, and learning continuity	- Online: Cost of internet/data, school fees - Underground: Lack of funding/resources	- Online: Discounted or free tuition, small internet packages - Underground: Free for all; rely on local or volunteer support
3	Security and Anonymity under Political Oppression	Fear of being punished under Taliban rule requires secrecy and caution	- Online: Fear of identity exposure - Underground: Risk of discovery by authorities	- Online: Use secure platforms (e.g., Signal), audio-only meetings - Underground: Admit only trusted students, change locations, disguise education as Islamic
4	Recognition and Certification	Lack of formal recognition limits students' future opportunities for education or employment	- Both: Certificates not recognised by government institutions	- Both: Affiliation with foreign or private universities for informal recognition (two USS can provide a California and Canadian high school diplomas)
5	Outreach and Community Building	Informal and trust-based networks are crucial for sustaining student recruitment and retention	- Online: Difficulty in reaching students openly - Underground: Need to build classes discreetly	- Online: Advertise via Facebook, LinkedIn, word of mouth - Underground: Use relatives, friends, and community ties to recruit
Overall	Alternative schools face intertwined structural and social barriers but use creative, low-tech, and community-based solutions to keep education alive under restrictive conditions

Number	Theme	Description	Challenges	Solutions
1	Limited Access to Technological Infrastructure	Inadequate internet, electricity, and learning spaces affect teaching and learning	- Online: Unstable internet, electricity outages- Underground: Small or no physical space, no digital appliances	- Online: Recorded videos, solar charging, audio calls, family-based learning groups - Underground: Teach mixed-grade students together, use homes as classrooms
2	Economic Hardship and Financial Accessibility	Poverty limits access to education tools, fees, and learning continuity	- Online: Cost of internet/data, school fees - Underground: Lack of funding/resources	- Online: Discounted or free tuition, small internet packages - Underground: Free for all; rely on local or volunteer support
3	Security and Anonymity under Political Oppression	Fear of being punished under Taliban rule requires secrecy and caution	- Online: Fear of identity exposure - Underground: Risk of discovery by authorities	- Online: Use secure platforms (e.g., Signal), audio-only meetings - Underground: Admit only trusted students, change locations, disguise education as Islamic
4	Recognition and Certification	Lack of formal recognition limits students' future opportunities for education or employment	- Both: Certificates not recognised by government institutions	- Both: Affiliation with foreign or private universities for informal recognition (two USS can provide a California and Canadian high school diplomas)
5	Outreach and Community Building	Informal and trust-based networks are crucial for sustaining student recruitment and retention	- Online: Difficulty in reaching students openly - Underground: Need to build classes discreetly	- Online: Advertise via Facebook, LinkedIn, word of mouth - Underground: Use relatives, friends, and community ties to recruit
Overall	Alternative schools face intertwined structural and social barriers but use creative, low-tech, and community-based solutions to keep education alive under restrictive conditions