Table 1. Summary of climate-related... | Emerald Publishing

Table 1.

Summary of climate-related health hazards

Climate-related health hazards	Description and references
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs)	Although the human body can adjust to environmental stressors, extreme temperatures and air pollution increase the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases (Giorgini et al., 2017) A study developed in the UK and India indicated that a combination of active transportation and replacement of high carbon dioxide emitting vehicles with low carbon dioxide emitting vehicles results in fewer Years of Life Lost (YLL) from Ischemic Heart Diseases (IDH) by approximately 15–17% on average (Woodcock et al., 2009) High temperatures affect the respiratory systems by making the air dry, complicating blood flow and at times the association with air pollution places citizens at risk (Demain, 2018)
Ozone layer effects	Depending on the exposure to radiation and the geographical distribution of the population, the depletion of the ozone layer and particulate material impacts health leading to an increased number of premature deaths (Orru et al., 2017) The increased exposure to ultra-violet radiation poses both pros and cons to human health. An advantage is the production of Vitamin D in the skin and sterilisation of the freshwater used for drinking and sanitation. Nevertheless, at the same time, the disadvantage includes conditions like cataracts, skins cancers like melanoma and activation of infectious diseases (Andrady et al., 2017)
Consumables/Greenhouse emissions (GHG)	The excessive use of coal, oil and gas increases the number of greenhouse fumes that eventually add together to magnify global warming, disrupting the human body's well-being and mental health (Barrett et al., 2015) A study developed in the UK and India showed that combining active travel and low emission transport vehicles would provide higher health benefits (Woodcock et al., 2009)
Allergens	Global warming has caused widespread allergens that trigger many allergic responses, generating autoimmunity in formerly disease-free populations and aggravating allergic respiratory diseases. Moreover, it changes the antigenic profile, overpowering the body's ability to bear it "Over the Counter” (OTC) use of antibiotics leading to antimicrobial resistance has further worsened the scenario. This microbial imbalance has promoted infectious diseases (Ray and Ming, 2020)
Maternal/foetal health	A systematic review (Kuehn and Mccormick, 2017) showed that the climate change effects were compared with the health of pregnant women and their foetuses, suggesting that the warming climate has led to a rise in the population's frequency of heatwaves with adverse effects on maternal and foetal health. It has affected the gestational age and the foetal well-being in a mother's womb and impacted the child's health after delivery in the form of neonatal stress. A temperature of 42°C is considered extraordinarily high Exposure to such heat has consequently shown an increase in preterm deliveries, which is birth before the completion of the gestation period (generally between 37 and 42 weeks). The second most common outcome of heat exposure is the baby's low birth weight at the time of delivery, leading to a rise in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) because of heat inflicted stress, sometimes leading to death (Kuehn and Mccormick, 2017)
Mental health	A systemic review (Palinkas and Wong, 2020) identified various factors affecting mental health because of climate change and duration (acute, sub-acute and long-lasting/chronic) The critical or acute phase, including climate-related disasters that spread rapidly on a large scale, induces psychological conditions such as major depression, anxiety, stress, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and insomnia because of the stressor. It persisted for several months and sometimes up to a year Subacute conditions (like heat waves) are associated with violent and illicit manners in a person It is leading to a surge in the cases of suicides and physical abuse in adult men particularly. Increased temperatures also affect thyroid function, reducing hormone activity and causing thyroid diseases that clinically present as tiredness and flawed thinking. It was estimated that temperatures above 30°C promoted psychological conditions by 0.5%, and every one °C warming within five years increased this rate by 2%. This usually occurs as a response at two levels: (1) A physical-level response is stimulated by heat, trauma, scarcity of food and illnesses(2) A community-level response because of socioeconomic damage to the environment and disrupted surroundingsThe predominant psychological effects because of fear, lack of knowledge of climate change and its consequences result in a variety of mental health conditions which includes psycho-terratic syndrome (the emotions through which a human relates to his planet) and the following disorders like eco-anxiety (worrisome state concerning future of the Earth), eco-paralysis and solastalgia; an emotional form of existential crisis because of environmental distresses The young generation is a high-risk population for such conditions (Palinkas and Wong, 2020)
Vector-borne diseases	Climate change is critical in spreading vector-borne diseases, significantly impacting mosquito-borne diseases (MBD). Besides, the lack of health facilities makes the human population much more susceptible to the outspread of MBD. High temperatures and humid environments favour the spread and regrowth of these vector-borne diseases (both consequences of global warming) This situation is worsened when the affected population faces a scarcity of health facilities, inadequate treatment options and damage to available resources by environmental catastrophes (Leal Filho et al., 2019) Climate change and public health research are fundamental in deciding what adaptation measures are needed

Climate-related health hazards	Description and references
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs)	Although the human body can adjust to environmental stressors, extreme temperatures and air pollution increase the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases (Giorgini et al., 2017)A study developed in the UK and India indicated that a combination of active transportation and replacement of high carbon dioxide emitting vehicles with low carbon dioxide emitting vehicles results in fewer Years of Life Lost (YLL) from Ischemic Heart Diseases (IDH) by approximately 15–17% on average (Woodcock et al., 2009)High temperatures affect the respiratory systems by making the air dry, complicating blood flow and at times the association with air pollution places citizens at risk (Demain, 2018)
Ozone layer effects	Depending on the exposure to radiation and the geographical distribution of the population, the depletion of the ozone layer and particulate material impacts health leading to an increased number of premature deaths (Orru et al., 2017)The increased exposure to ultra-violet radiation poses both pros and cons to human health. An advantage is the production of Vitamin D in the skin and sterilisation of the freshwater used for drinking and sanitation. Nevertheless, at the same time, the disadvantage includes conditions like cataracts, skins cancers like melanoma and activation of infectious diseases (Andrady et al., 2017)
Consumables/Greenhouse emissions (GHG)	The excessive use of coal, oil and gas increases the number of greenhouse fumes that eventually add together to magnify global warming, disrupting the human body's well-being and mental health (Barrett et al., 2015)A study developed in the UK and India showed that combining active travel and low emission transport vehicles would provide higher health benefits (Woodcock et al., 2009)
Allergens	Global warming has caused widespread allergens that trigger many allergic responses, generating autoimmunity in formerly disease-free populations and aggravating allergic respiratory diseases. Moreover, it changes the antigenic profile, overpowering the body's ability to bear it "Over the Counter” (OTC) use of antibiotics leading to antimicrobial resistance has further worsened the scenario. This microbial imbalance has promoted infectious diseases (Ray and Ming, 2020)
Maternal/foetal health	A systematic review (Kuehn and Mccormick, 2017) showed that the climate change effects were compared with the health of pregnant women and their foetuses, suggesting that the warming climate has led to a rise in the population's frequency of heatwaves with adverse effects on maternal and foetal health. It has affected the gestational age and the foetal well-being in a mother's womb and impacted the child's health after delivery in the form of neonatal stress. A temperature of 42°C is considered extraordinarily highExposure to such heat has consequently shown an increase in preterm deliveries, which is birth before the completion of the gestation period (generally between 37 and 42 weeks). The second most common outcome of heat exposure is the baby's low birth weight at the time of delivery, leading to a rise in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) because of heat inflicted stress, sometimes leading to death (Kuehn and Mccormick, 2017)
Mental health	A systemic review (Palinkas and Wong, 2020) identified various factors affecting mental health because of climate change and duration (acute, sub-acute and long-lasting/chronic)The critical or acute phase, including climate-related disasters that spread rapidly on a large scale, induces psychological conditions such as major depression, anxiety, stress, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and insomnia because of the stressor. It persisted for several months and sometimes up to a yearSubacute conditions (like heat waves) are associated with violent and illicit manners in a personIt is leading to a surge in the cases of suicides and physical abuse in adult men particularly. Increased temperatures also affect thyroid function, reducing hormone activity and causing thyroid diseases that clinically present as tiredness and flawed thinking. It was estimated that temperatures above 30°C promoted psychological conditions by 0.5%, and every one °C warming within five years increased this rate by 2%. This usually occurs as a response at two levels: (1) A physical-level response is stimulated by heat, trauma, scarcity of food and illnesses(2) A community-level response because of socioeconomic damage to the environment and disrupted surroundingsThe predominant psychological effects because of fear, lack of knowledge of climate change and its consequences result in a variety of mental health conditions which includes psycho-terratic syndrome (the emotions through which a human relates to his planet) and the following disorders like eco-anxiety (worrisome state concerning future of the Earth), eco-paralysis and solastalgia; an emotional form of existential crisis because of environmental distressesThe young generation is a high-risk population for such conditions (Palinkas and Wong, 2020)
Vector-borne diseases	Climate change is critical in spreading vector-borne diseases, significantly impacting mosquito-borne diseases (MBD). Besides, the lack of health facilities makes the human population much more susceptible to the outspread of MBD. High temperatures and humid environments favour the spread and regrowth of these vector-borne diseases (both consequences of global warming)This situation is worsened when the affected population faces a scarcity of health facilities, inadequate treatment options and damage to available resources by environmental catastrophes (Leal Filho et al., 2019)Climate change and public health research are fundamental in deciding what adaptation measures are needed