Review of collaborative research studies in the humanitarian domain
| Source | Collaborative research actors | Collaboration context/project description | Location | Duration of collaboration | Collaborative research methodology | Data collection | Data analysis | Methodological and/or contextual challenges | Benefits of collaborative research in humanitarian settings | Main features of collaborative research |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jahre et al. (2012) | Academia–practitioner | A project between academics and UNICEF Uganda and The Global Emergency Group on drug-supply chains in Uganda. Analysing the causes and possible solutions to frequent stock shortages | Uganda | 2009–2010 | Action research embedded in a case study | 50 interviews and 27 site visits. Interview protocols and guides were prepared and then refined during the process. Snowball sampling starting with a small group of people suggested by UNICEF | Interviews were performed by two researchers, one participatory and the second is observing. One is a humanitarian logistics practitioner and the other is a logistics researcher Cross-referencing data by using various sources The analyses were discussed with the stakeholders and recommendations for improvements were suggested | “The field context was challenging, with 5,000 km at a speed of 30 km per hour on dirt roads, wearing bulletproof vests, and helmets” (Jahre, 2010) 1. Potential lack of control over data quality 2. Absence of key variables 3. Inter-observer consistency: how consistent is the measure consistent between different observers 4. Face validity: does the measure reflect the concept in question 5. External validity: can results be generalized | Better forecasting and inventory management through integration of the supply chain, reducing complexity by eliminating stocks, and providing better information exchange and stronger supply-chain competence | 1. Co-identification of the scope of the project 2. Data triangulation in both formal and informal settings 3. No formal practitioner orientation 4. Collaborative analysis of data, triangulation of researchers 5. Co-developing of intervention plans 6. Practitioners execute the intervention plans 7. Monitoring (observant researcher) |
| Sohn (2018) | Academia–practitioner | A project between academics and Zambia Meteorological Department on the use of weather information and early warning systems for humanitarian supply chains | Zambia | 2 years | Field research embedded in a case study | The project was part of bigger project which has ensured accessibility to rich data There was a pre-determined scope of the research and geographical range Site visits facilitated by practitioners | Interviews, field notes, organisational reports and other relevant secondary data were reviewed and analysed. Soon after the field visit, the author was required to compile a report on the project which consisted of preliminary findings from the field that were mainly based on the author’s memoing and field notes | 1. Safety and security issues in the field, high levels of geographical dispersion have led to a limited academic engagement 2. The short time window of “immediate response” does not allow researchers to embark on collaborative research projects (most HLSCM research focuses on immediate response) 3. Field research is time consuming | 1. Providing evidence-based insights and to better plan the future response in practice 2. Maximising the conceptuality and relevance to the real-life situation | 1. Understanding the context and geo-political situation in Zambia beforehand commencing the research 2. Co-identification of the research with Zambia metrological department 3. Data collection in formal (e.g. interviews with guides) and informal settings (e.g. over lunch) 4. Focusing on the end-user of the metrological data (i.e. social impact and reflexivity) 5. The researcher prepared interview guides and updated them with preliminary analysis, before each interview practitioners received minimal orientation 6. The researcher had access to rich data from the Zambia Meteorological Department 7. Continuous re-assessment of the applied methodology and collected data to establish a logical chain or evidence 8. Continuous refinement of the proposed solutions (frameworks) based on a continuous reflection on the findings 9. The researcher collected the data |
| Pedraza-Martinez et al. (2013) | Academia–practitioner | A long-term collaborative project between academics and several international humanitarian organisations: International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC); the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC); the World Food Programme (WFP); and WorldVision International (WVI) | Various countries (Kenya, Mozambique, Uganda....., among others) | 2007 till past 2013 | Field work embedded in a case study (case study as per the authors). Long term prescriptive and collaborative research using optimisation models | 1. Qualitative and quantitative data 2. Interviews with staff, field trips and archival quantitative data on vehicle use | Statistical analysis for quantitative and archival data Not mentioned for qualitative data | 1. The language used by academics is different than that of practitioners, leading to distorted evidence and a challenging sense-making of the data 2. Remoteness and rurality of the “field” | 1. Maximising contextualization 2. Higher practitioner–academic engagement leads to collecting richer and “better data” 3. The continuous reflection enabled the academics to ask more sophisticated questions and to perform deeper analyses; hence, solving real-life problems with significant societal impact on the local communities 4. Building a relationship by the way of enhancing trust and engagement. Moving from “the academics Team” to trusted partners 5. bridging the gap between terminologies used by academic and practitioners, and perceptions on the humanitarian domain | 1. Academic team was immersed in the practitioner system (i.e. field), closely working together and building trust over the years 2. The research problem (hence, question) evolved during field visits and was co-identified by the way of discussion with practitioners 3. A team was formed by academics with extensive engagement from the ICRC staff 4. Data triangulation from different sources (primary interviews and secondary archival), also quantitative and qualitative 5. The academic team collected the data, the practitioners facilitated access to personnel and archives due to high level of trust 6. Preliminary analysis was performed (exploratory phase) and the practitioners system was continuously updated 7. Triangulation of methods (statistical analysis and qualitative analysis) and triangulation of researchers from different universities 8. Recommendations (prescriptions) were developed and some of them were implemented, and evaluated |
| Sandvik and Lemaitre (2013) | Academia–practitioner-affected population | A collaborative research project between academics and a local NGO in Colombia that caters for internally displaced women “Liga de Mujeres Desplazadas” | Colombia | May 2010–June 2011 | Field research embedded in a case study and a survey | Qualitative and quantitative methods Interviews with 14 Liga leaders A collaboratively developed census of 126 member households (end beneficiaries) Ethnographic observation and participation with a collaborative approach extensive field notes from participant observation of legal proceedings and meetings Interviews, audio clips and statements obtained from the Liga’s three successive websites | Qualitative analysis of interviews Statistical analysis of the survey Content analysis of legal documents and court reports | Legal and juridical challenges related to the situation of internally displace communities, especially women | 1. Co-creation of knowledge between academia and practitioners has led to a plethora of benefits to the end beneficiaries. They managed to improve the national legal and administrative framework to recognise the rights of IDP and receive better services from the local authorities. The co-created knowledge has also led international humanitarian organisations (WFP) to be more engaged in the situation and increase the food aid 2. Proposing local beneficiaries of humanitarian aid as agents in the production and management of knowledge, rather than just aid recipients. “knowledge is, in fact, power” (p.S46) | 1. The research team made sure to establish a very deep understanding of the context of the north Colombian region, the geo-political situation, the legal and administrative frameworks and the juridical situation of internally displaced people 2. The research objective and the methodology (survey) were co-developed with the Liga research committee 3. data gathered in formal (interviews, survey, websites) and informal settings (field trips and observations) 4. Triangulation of data sources (primary from interviews, survey responses and legal meetings) and secondary (Liga website, legal proceedings, court reports) 5. Triangulation of methods (in-depth interviews, survey, field observations and ethnography) 6. The Liga team received orientation on initial data analysis and an initial report was presented to them 7. The methodology was amended after reflection session on the exploratory analysis (trial runs of the census) 8. The Liga team helped in the interpretation of data |
| Sundel (1999) | Academia–practitioner | Contracted collaborative research between academics and the UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees) | Cyprus/Northern Cyprus | Not mentioned | Field research embedded in a case study and a focus group (workshop) | Qualitative and quantitative methods, preliminary meetings, survey, in-depth interviews, site visits, workshops and focus groups | Not mentioned | Security issues reluctance of local communities to collaborate with research team | Building a relationship between two segregated local communities | 1. Research is imitated by a practitioner, research problem is based on a critical real life situation in Cyprus and Northern Cyprus, and caters for the needs of local communities to have a mental health facility that can be shared between the two segregated communities due to a political conflict 2. Deep involvement of the two researchers, where one of them was recruited as a consultant by practitioners 3. Data gathered from different sources and in different formats. Further, in formal and informal settings 4. Practitioners and participants from local authorities contributed to the analysis 5. Triangulation of researchers 6. Co-identification of potential solutions |
| Refstie and Brun (2011) | Academia–practitioner-affected population | A collaborative research project between academics, a national NGO and forced migrants in Uganda | Uganda | Started in 2007 | Participatory action research | Interviews with key officials from NGOs and local and national government. In addition, individual interviews, focus group discussions, and observation. | Qualitative data analysis (implicit) | Not mentioned | Bringing together researchers, practitioners, local NGOs, local authorities, and local communities to solve real-life problems, provide humanitarian aid and to co-create knowledge and provide advocacy on the status of internally displaced people | 1. Transformative participatory research that uses knowledge creation to better direct policy making and improve a real-life situation 2. The collaborative research is co-developed by academics and practitioners with involvement of local communities and policymakers 3. Jointly preparing for action (briefing papers) 4. The collaborative nature of the project provided the participants with an opportunity to be more than just a source of information 5. Involvement of the participants in initial findings analysis in focus groups, hence jointly planning for required action |
| Prasad et al. (2017) | Academia–practitioner | Action research project between academics and Sodhana Charitable Trust operating in rural Andhra Pradesh, India | India | Not mentioned | Action research | Data collected on women’s health from multiple age groups through a detailed instrument with over 100 questions | Simulation analysis | Rurality and remoteness | Improving the healthcare services in the rural villages of India Action research helped in having a more real-life simulation | 1. Transformative participatory research, with a main goal to solve a real life challenge (improving health care in rural India) 2. A team of researchers and practitioners working closely together, with knowledge sharing and trust 3. In contrast to our framework, data was collected by practitioners |
| Chang et al. (2010) | Academia–practitioner | Action research project between different Taiwanese universities and Taipei City Government in Taiwan | Taiwan | 3 years | Participatory action research | Field observations, meetings semi-structured in-depth interviews, focus groups and an online discussion forum Members of the research team volunteered as non-paid members in the NGO | Qualitative data analysis (implicit) | Accurate identification of the crucial needs and also new potential problems that need to be addressed in the Future | 1. Formation of a research committee that incorporates both researchers and practitioners to co-identify the scope of the collaborative research project 2. Triangulation of different sources of data 3. Reflective sessions 4. Briefing practitioners with preliminary analysis and joint data analysis 5. Cyclical rounds of intervention and implementation | |
| Jahre et al. (2015) | Academia–practitioner | Action research project between academics and International Federation Red Cross Red Crescent (IFRC) | Haiti, Turkey and Ivory Coast | 2010–2011 | Action research - embedded in a case study settings | Field observations, field trips, in-depth interviews | Qualitative cross-case analysis for the three case studies by categorization and pattern matching | Disseminating of results from action research projects in scientific journals is challenging, both because of time constraints and rigour concerns | Solving real life problems and building new knowledge | 1. Co-identification of research problem and forming a research team with the IFRC 2. Field visits to better understand the context 3. Unit of analysis is not fixed and depends on the case context 4. Triangulation of different data sources 5. Case study protocol beforehand the research 6. Researchers are immersed in the field and have access to IFRC systems 7. Co-developing of intervention 8. Cyclical process with reflective sessions |
| Chandes and Paché (2010) | Academia–practitioner | A collaborative research project between academics and Cooperation Logı´stica Solidaria, Lima, Peru | Peru | April 2007–December 2008 | Participant observation method | Interviews, archival data | Qualitative data analysis (implicit) | Not mentioned | The collaborative nature allowed a privileged position to the researchers in terms of data collection and providing rich data analysis | 1. Extensive social interaction between researchers and aid beneficiaries 2. The researchers were immersed in the practitioner’s system and managed to have complete access to data. As one of the researchers was working in the same government bureau where the data collection was taking place 3. Cyclical research (multi-phases). Researchers and practitioners are swapping roles |
| Rutta et al. (2005) | Practitioner-affected population | A collaborative research project between academics and the International Federation of the Red Cross (IFRC), UNHCR and Burundian and Rwandan refugees | Tanzania | 2002–2003 | Participatory field assessment | Interviews, focus groups and quantitative data | Four groups of assessment teams, various qualitative methods (e.g. content analysis) | (Implicit) issues related to refugee camps; rurality and remoteness, healthcare and security issues. | 1. Beneficiary-cantered approach to solve real-life problems. Inclusion of refugee community in research (data collection and analysis) and appraisal of humanitarian aid programmes 2. Accurate needs assessment and improving the living situation of refugees | 1. A diverse team of non-academic researchers belonging to different organisation working closely together to develop the research problem 2. The beneficiaries (i.e. refugees) participated in the research methodology (i.e. data collection and analysis) 3. Triangulation of data sources and types (quantitative and qualitative) |
| Nelson et al. (2010) | Academia–practitioner-affected population | A collaborative research project between academics, International Rescue Committee, Tanzania Program, and the aid beneficiaries | Tanzania, Kenya | Not mentioned | By-person factor analysis | Interviews, focus group discussions and free-response questionnaires | Interviews, focus groups | (Implicit) issues related to refugee camps; rurality and remoteness, healthcare issues, security issues | 1. Overcoming lack of beneficiary involvement, hence, improvement of healthcare services for aid recipients 2. Accurate identification of the specific needs of beneficiary communities 3. Spotting potential obstacles to improvements 4. Improving refugee satisfaction | 1. Triangulation of quantitative and qualitative methodologies 2. Active involvement of multiple stakeholders in the research problem (academics, practitioners and beneficiaries) |
| Tanabe et al. (2015) | Practitioner-affected population | A participatory research project led by the omen’s Refugee Commission and a number of local humanitarian aid NGOs | Kenya, Nepal, and Uganda | November–December 2013 (Kenya), December 2013–January 2014 (Uganda), August 2014 (Nepal) | Qualitative participatory methods | Focus group discussions and interviews, using maximum variation principle | NVivo 10 and Excel | Language barrier, thus translation services were procured for the different languages used by refugees | 1. Inclusion of refugees in the research, hence, offering better healthcare services and improving their rights | 1. Formation of a multidisciplinary research team 2. Reflective sessions (daily debriefing meetings) 3. Inclusion of different stakeholder 4. Triangulation of data sources 5. Collaborative data analysis with all the stakeholders in discussion groups 6. Intervention plans are co-developed with the research team |
| van den Muijsenbergh et al. (2016) | Academia-affected population | Editorial, guiding paper | n/a | n/a | Mixed quantitative-qualitative participatory action research | Making sure of obtaining informed consent beforehand commencing the data collection | n/a | Safety, language barriers | n/a | 1. Involvement of affected communities 2. Participatory nature 3. Triangulation of data sources 4. Triangulation of methods |
| Lykes (2013) | Academia-affected population | A participatory research project between academics and survivors directly affected by armed conflict in Guatemala and their families in the USA | Guatemala, USA | Started in 1996 | (Photo–) participatory action research | Storytelling, community mapping and collective drawings | Documentation analysis | linguistic and ethnic barriers | Developing solidarity with survivors communities rebuilding the social network of those survivors and connecting them with their families | Participatory nature, researcher is embedded in the field and the different stakeholders including the aid beneficiaries are included in the research |
| Tanabe et al. (2018) | Practitioner-affected population | A participatory action research project led by a group of researchers from Women’s Refugee Commission’s Sexual and Reproductive Health Program and representatives from the affected community | Kenya, Nepal, and Uganda | 2013–2014 | Participatory action research | Focus group discussions and interviews, using maximum variation principle | Nvivo | 1. Language barrier 2. Limited accessibility due to damaged infrastructure 3. Safety issues | 1. Developing the relationship through the collaborative research process; enhancing collaboration and power sharing among the humanitarian stakeholders 2. Identifying the priorities of each actor 3. Engaging the humanitarian aid recipient as participatory actors rather than respondents; hence, helping them overcome marginalisation. Strengthening the social network among the aid recipients | 1. Cyclical, multi-phases research 2. Research findings inform different stakeholders (NGOs, UN agencies, local policymakers, and affected communities) 3. Establishing a research team inclusive of representatives from different stakeholders 4. Developing a protocol for participant recruitment and obtaining informant consent for the entire duration of the research project 5. Reflective sessions (debriefing the stakeholders of preliminary analysis, group discussions with participatory activities) 6. Planning for action by preparing customised technical reports in local languages to address different contexts |
| Lykes and Scheib (2016) | Academia-affected population | A collaborative research project between academics and Latinas and African-American women in the aftermath of hurricane Katerina in New Orleans | USA | 2006–2009 | (Photo–) participatory action research | Storytelling, visual techniques such as photo narratives | Critical bifocal analysis | 1. The participatory project was time consuming and required great deal of effort from the local communities 2. Law enforcement is not strong during and after disasters | 1. Enhancing self-confidence of the African–American and Latina women in the aftermath of hurricane Katerina | 1. Participatory nature 2. An engaged research team with diverse membership that includes university-based as well as community-based researchers 3. Triangulation of different data sources and types 4. Putting forward recommendation (prescriptions) |
| Manikas et al. (2017) | Academia-practitioner | A collaborative research project between a group of academics and a humanitarian NGO (Idaho Foodbank) | USA | = | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | Providing humanitarian organisations with low-cost software tools | 1. Engagement of researchers and practitioners in the design of a solution to real life problem |
| Source | Collaborative research actors | Collaboration context/project description | Location | Duration of collaboration | Collaborative research methodology | Data collection | Data analysis | Methodological and/or contextual challenges | Benefits of collaborative research in humanitarian settings | Main features of collaborative research |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Academia–practitioner | A project between academics and UNICEF Uganda and The Global Emergency Group on drug-supply chains in Uganda. Analysing the causes and possible solutions to frequent stock shortages | Uganda | 2009–2010 | Action research embedded in a case study | 50 interviews and 27 site visits. Interview protocols and guides were prepared and then refined during the process. Snowball sampling starting with a small group of people suggested by UNICEF | Interviews were performed by two researchers, one participatory and the second is observing. One is a humanitarian logistics practitioner and the other is a logistics researcher | “The field context was challenging, with 5,000 km at a speed of 30 km per hour on dirt roads, wearing bulletproof vests, and helmets” (Jahre, 2010) | Better forecasting and inventory management through integration of the supply chain, reducing complexity by eliminating stocks, and providing better information exchange and stronger supply-chain competence | 1. Co-identification of the scope of the project | |
| Academia–practitioner | A project between academics and Zambia Meteorological Department on the use of weather information and early warning systems for humanitarian supply chains | Zambia | 2 years | Field research embedded in a case study | The project was part of bigger project which has ensured accessibility to rich data | Interviews, field notes, organisational reports and other relevant secondary data were reviewed and analysed. Soon after the field visit, the author was required to compile a report on the project which consisted of preliminary findings from the field that were mainly based on the author’s memoing and field notes | 1. Safety and security issues in the field, high levels of geographical dispersion have led to a limited academic engagement | 1. Providing evidence-based insights and to better plan the future response in practice | 1. Understanding the context and geo-political situation in Zambia beforehand commencing the research | |
| Academia–practitioner | A long-term collaborative project between academics and several international humanitarian organisations: International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC); the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC); the World Food Programme (WFP); and WorldVision International (WVI) | Various countries (Kenya, Mozambique, Uganda....., among others) | 2007 till past 2013 | Field work embedded in a case study (case study as per the authors). Long term | 1. Qualitative and quantitative data | Statistical analysis for quantitative and archival data | 1. The language used by academics is different than that of practitioners, leading to distorted evidence and a challenging sense-making of the data | 1. Maximising contextualization | 1. Academic team was immersed in the practitioner system (i.e. field), closely working together and building trust over the years | |
| Academia–practitioner-affected population | A collaborative research project between academics and a local NGO in Colombia that caters for internally displaced women “Liga de Mujeres Desplazadas” | Colombia | May 2010–June 2011 | Field research embedded in a case study and a survey | Qualitative and quantitative methods | Qualitative analysis of interviews | Legal and juridical challenges related to the situation of internally displace communities, especially women | 1. Co-creation of knowledge between academia and practitioners has led to a plethora of benefits to the end beneficiaries. They managed to improve the national legal and administrative framework to recognise the rights of IDP and receive better services from the local authorities. The co-created knowledge has also led international humanitarian organisations (WFP) to be more engaged in the situation and increase the food aid | 1. The research team made sure to establish a very deep understanding of the context of the north Colombian region, the geo-political situation, the legal and administrative frameworks and the juridical situation of internally displaced people | |
| Academia–practitioner | Contracted collaborative research between academics and the UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees) | Cyprus/Northern Cyprus | Not mentioned | Field research embedded in a case study and a focus group (workshop) | Qualitative and quantitative methods, preliminary meetings, survey, in-depth interviews, site visits, workshops and focus groups | Not mentioned | Security issues reluctance of local communities to collaborate with research team | Building a relationship between two segregated local communities | 1. Research is imitated by a practitioner, research problem is based on a critical real life situation in Cyprus and Northern Cyprus, and caters for the needs of local communities to have a mental health facility that can be shared between the two segregated communities due to a political conflict | |
| Academia–practitioner-affected population | A collaborative research project between academics, a national NGO and forced migrants in Uganda | Uganda | Started in 2007 | Participatory action research | Interviews with key officials from NGOs and local and national government. In addition, individual interviews, focus group discussions, and observation. | Qualitative data analysis (implicit) | Not mentioned | Bringing together researchers, practitioners, local NGOs, local authorities, and local communities to solve real-life problems, provide humanitarian aid and to co-create knowledge and provide advocacy on the status of internally displaced people | 1. Transformative participatory research that uses knowledge creation to better direct policy making and improve a real-life situation | |
| Academia–practitioner | Action research project between academics and Sodhana Charitable Trust operating in rural Andhra Pradesh, India | India | Not mentioned | Action research | Data collected on women’s health from multiple age groups through a detailed instrument with over 100 questions | Simulation analysis | Rurality and remoteness | Improving the healthcare services in the rural villages of India | 1. Transformative participatory research, with a main goal to solve a real life challenge (improving health care in rural India) | |
| Academia–practitioner | Action research project between different Taiwanese universities and Taipei City Government in Taiwan | Taiwan | 3 years | Participatory action research | Field observations, meetings semi-structured in-depth interviews, focus groups and an online discussion forum | Qualitative data analysis (implicit) | Accurate identification of the crucial needs and also new potential problems that need to be addressed in the Future | 1. Formation of a research committee that incorporates both researchers and practitioners to co-identify the scope of the collaborative research project | ||
| Academia–practitioner | Action research project between academics and International Federation Red Cross Red Crescent (IFRC) | Haiti, Turkey and Ivory Coast | 2010–2011 | Action research - embedded in a case study settings | Field observations, field trips, in-depth interviews | Qualitative cross-case analysis for the three case studies by categorization and pattern matching | Disseminating of results from action research projects in scientific journals is challenging, both because of time constraints and rigour concerns | Solving real life problems and building new knowledge | 1. Co-identification of research problem and forming a research team with the IFRC | |
| Academia–practitioner | A collaborative research project between academics and Cooperation Logı´stica Solidaria, Lima, Peru | Peru | April 2007–December 2008 | Participant observation method | Interviews, archival data | Qualitative data analysis (implicit) | Not mentioned | The collaborative nature allowed a privileged position to the researchers in terms of data collection and providing rich data analysis | 1. Extensive social interaction between researchers and aid beneficiaries | |
| Practitioner-affected population | A collaborative research project between academics and the International Federation of the Red Cross (IFRC), UNHCR and Burundian and Rwandan refugees | Tanzania | 2002–2003 | Participatory field assessment | Interviews, focus groups and quantitative data | Four groups of assessment teams, various qualitative methods (e.g. content analysis) | (Implicit) issues related to refugee camps; rurality and remoteness, healthcare and security issues. | 1. Beneficiary-cantered approach to solve real-life problems. Inclusion of refugee community in research (data collection and analysis) and appraisal of humanitarian aid programmes | 1. A diverse team of non-academic researchers belonging to different organisation working closely together to develop the research problem | |
| Academia–practitioner-affected population | A collaborative research project between academics, International Rescue Committee, Tanzania Program, and the aid beneficiaries | Tanzania, Kenya | Not mentioned | By-person factor analysis | Interviews, focus group discussions and free-response questionnaires | Interviews, focus groups | (Implicit) issues related to refugee camps; rurality and remoteness, healthcare issues, security issues | 1. Overcoming lack of beneficiary involvement, hence, improvement of healthcare services for aid recipients | 1. Triangulation of quantitative and qualitative methodologies | |
| Practitioner-affected population | A participatory research project led by the omen’s Refugee Commission and a number of local humanitarian aid NGOs | Kenya, Nepal, and Uganda | November–December 2013 (Kenya), December 2013–January 2014 (Uganda), August 2014 (Nepal) | Qualitative participatory methods | Focus group discussions and interviews, using maximum variation principle | NVivo 10 and Excel | Language barrier, thus translation services were procured for the different languages used by refugees | 1. Inclusion of refugees in the research, hence, offering better healthcare services and improving their rights | 1. Formation of a multidisciplinary research team | |
| Academia-affected population | Editorial, guiding paper | n/a | n/a | Mixed quantitative-qualitative participatory action research | Making sure of obtaining informed consent beforehand commencing the data collection | n/a | Safety, language barriers | n/a | 1. Involvement of affected communities | |
| Academia-affected population | A participatory research project between academics and survivors directly affected by armed conflict in Guatemala and their families in the USA | Guatemala, USA | Started in 1996 | (Photo–) participatory action research | Storytelling, community mapping and collective drawings | Documentation analysis | linguistic and ethnic barriers | Developing solidarity with survivors communities rebuilding the social network of those survivors and connecting them with their families | Participatory nature, researcher is embedded in the field and the different stakeholders including the aid beneficiaries are included in the research | |
| Practitioner-affected population | A participatory action research project led by a group of researchers from Women’s Refugee Commission’s Sexual and Reproductive Health Program and representatives from the affected community | Kenya, Nepal, and Uganda | 2013–2014 | Participatory action research | Focus group discussions and interviews, using maximum variation principle | Nvivo | 1. Language barrier | 1. Developing the relationship through the collaborative research process; enhancing collaboration and power sharing among the humanitarian stakeholders | 1. Cyclical, multi-phases research | |
| Academia-affected population | A collaborative research project between academics and Latinas and African-American women in the aftermath of hurricane Katerina in New Orleans | USA | 2006–2009 | (Photo–) participatory action research | Storytelling, visual techniques such as photo narratives | Critical bifocal analysis | 1. The participatory project was time consuming and required great deal of effort from the local communities | 1. Enhancing self-confidence of the African–American and Latina women in the aftermath of hurricane Katerina | 1. Participatory nature | |
| Academia-practitioner | A collaborative research project between a group of academics and a humanitarian NGO (Idaho Foodbank) | USA | = | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | Providing humanitarian organisations with low-cost software tools | 1. Engagement of researchers and practitioners in the design of a solution to real life problem |