Table 3.

Major coding differences among three approaches to content analysis

Type of content analysisStudy starts withTiming of defining codes or keywordsSource of codes or keywords
Conventional content analysisObservationCodes are defined during data analysisCodes are derived from data
Directed content analysisTheoryCodes are defined before and during data analysisCodes are derived from theory or relevant research findings
Summative content analysisKeywordsKeywords are identified before and during data analysisKeywords are derived from the interest of researchers or review of literature
Source: Hsieh and Shannon (2005)

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