Table 1. Fake news definitions in... | Emerald Publishing

Table 1.

Fake news definitions in different contexts

Definition of fake news	Context, topic, references
Ideological or political propaganda circulated online or offline to gain preset objectives catered to masses or a target group of people	Cyber defense, fake news evaluation, (Sample et al., 2018); Digital journalism, conceptualization (Mourão and Robertson, 2019)
Some brands communication could be considered as fake news which are purposely designed to obfuscate or mislead the consumer	Marketing, branding (Berthon et al., 2019)
News articles that are intentionally and verifiably false, and could mislead readers but need more elaboration Politics)	Democracy, journalism (Buschman, 2019); information management, journalism (Montgomery and Gray, 2017)
Fabricated information that mimics news media content in form but not in organizational process or intent designed to mislead or gain profit online or offline	Digital journalism, conceptualization (Lazer et al., 2018); Consumer research, social media (Chen and Cheng, 2020); Marketing, corporations and branding (Weidner et al., 2019); Politics, human rights (McGonagle, 2017); academia, college students, (Leeder, 2019); information management, journalism (Finneman and Thomas, 2018); conceptualization (Molina et al., 2021; Zhou and Zafarani, 2020(
Fake news arises whenever the process of information is defective and/or disguised as true online or offline	Internet and mass media, internet as a platform (Floridi, 1996); Politics, social media (Shin et al., 2018); Social media, sharing behavior (Talwar et al., 2019)
Misinformation that involves information that is inadvertently false and is shared without intent to cause harm, while disinformation involves false information knowingly being created and shared to cause harm	Social media, classification algorithm (Wang et al., 2019)
A subset of false information and is False information spread under the guise of being authentic news usually spread through news outlets or internet with an intention to gain politically or financially, increase readership, biased public opinion	Information management, internet and social media (Meel and Vishwakarma, 2019); Politics, Western democracies (Humprecht, 2019)
Fake quoting is a form of fake news, or miss-quoting is a process in which a text is taken out of context and deviates the audience from the original topic	Politics; social media (Kirner-Ludwig, 2019)
All false information published and spread through internet which are aimed at intentional misleading, deceiving to gain monetary, political or other benefits	Social media, conceptualization (Zhang and Ghorbani, 2020)
The phenomenon of information exchange between an actor and acted upon that primarily attempts to invalidate generally-accepted conceptions of truth for the purpose of altering established power structures	Academia, faculty and academic staff (Weiss et al., 2020(
Fake news is understood as false and often sensational information disseminated under the guise of news designed to be widely re-transmitted and to deceive at least some of its audience	Information management, conceptualization, (Aleinikov et al., 2019); Epistemology, conceptualization, (Blake-Turner, 2020; Rose, 2020;(
fake news is a form of disinformation marked by high levels of intention to deceive and low levels of facticity that approximate the look and feel of real news	Journalism, conceptualization, (Tandoc et al., 2019, 2018)

Definition of fake news	Context, topic, references
Ideological or political propaganda circulated online or offline to gain preset objectives catered to masses or a target group of people	Cyber defense, fake news evaluation, (Sample et al., 2018); Digital journalism, conceptualization (Mourão and Robertson, 2019)
Some brands communication could be considered as fake news which are purposely designed to obfuscate or mislead the consumer	Marketing, branding (Berthon et al., 2019)
News articles that are intentionally and verifiably false, and could mislead readers but need more elaboration Politics)	Democracy, journalism (Buschman, 2019); information management, journalism (Montgomery and Gray, 2017)
Fabricated information that mimics news media content in form but not in organizational process or intent designed to mislead or gain profit online or offline	Digital journalism, conceptualization (Lazer et al., 2018); Consumer research, social media (Chen and Cheng, 2020); Marketing, corporations and branding (Weidner et al., 2019); Politics, human rights (McGonagle, 2017); academia, college students, (Leeder, 2019); information management, journalism (Finneman and Thomas, 2018); conceptualization (Molina et al., 2021; Zhou and Zafarani, 2020(
Fake news arises whenever the process of information is defective and/or disguised as true online or offline	Internet and mass media, internet as a platform (Floridi, 1996); Politics, social media (Shin et al., 2018); Social media, sharing behavior (Talwar et al., 2019)
Misinformation that involves information that is inadvertently false and is shared without intent to cause harm, while disinformation involves false information knowingly being created and shared to cause harm	Social media, classification algorithm (Wang et al., 2019)
A subset of false information and is False information spread under the guise of being authentic news usually spread through news outlets or internet with an intention to gain politically or financially, increase readership, biased public opinion	Information management, internet and social media (Meel and Vishwakarma, 2019);Politics, Western democracies (Humprecht, 2019)
Fake quoting is a form of fake news, or miss-quoting is a process in which a text is taken out of context and deviates the audience from the original topic	Politics; social media (Kirner-Ludwig, 2019)
All false information published and spread through internet which are aimed at intentional misleading, deceiving to gain monetary, political or other benefits	Social media, conceptualization (Zhang and Ghorbani, 2020)
The phenomenon of information exchange between an actor and acted upon that primarily attempts to invalidate generally-accepted conceptions of truth for the purpose of altering established power structures	Academia, faculty and academic staff (Weiss et al., 2020(
Fake news is understood as false and often sensational information disseminated under the guise of news designed to be widely re-transmitted and to deceive at least some of its audience	Information management, conceptualization, (Aleinikov et al., 2019); Epistemology, conceptualization, (Blake-Turner, 2020; Rose, 2020;(
fake news is a form of disinformation marked by high levels of intention to deceive and low levels of facticity that approximate the look and feel of real news	Journalism, conceptualization, (Tandoc et al., 2019, 2018)