Table IV Detailed coding of each...

Table IV

Detailed coding of each participant

		Expatriates’ leadership practices reflecting the Chinese philosophies			Negative experience attributing to the difference of Dutch and Chinese culture (−)
	Leader age, overseas experience, firm type, managerial level, industry	Confucianism	Taoism	Legalism	Confucianism	Taoism	Positive to Dutch culture (+)
1	34 4 Middle level Non-Chinese MNC Health Care	Be a role model Encourage people to grow based on their merits Sympathy Company has high ethical standard Developing subordinates (coaching) Manage different expectations	Be an observer Do less but drive others to perform	Control meeting direction Target-driven Have accountable performance Deliver on promises Encourage employees to work for their own benefit Professional guidance	Public objection to authority Execution efficiency	Inflexibility	✓
2	31 1 Middle level Chinese MNC Telecommunications	Trust and respect subordinates Put oneself in one’s shoes	Forbearance Contingency approach	Deliver on promises Establish rules and responsibilities	Unwilling to work beyond job responsibility	Inflexibility	✓
3	37 2 High level Chinese MNC Telecommunications	Developing subordinates (coaching) Learning-orientation Encourage people to grow based on their merits Trust and respect subordinates	Respect business and people for their true nature Empowering Contingency approach Balance the headquarter and local	Have accountable performance	Unwilling to work beyond job responsibility	Inflexibility	✓
4	31 2 Middle level Chinese MNC Telecommunications	Be a role model Encourage employees to grow based on their merits Trust and respect Manage expectations Common goal and share the honor	Be an observer Empowering Flexibility	Encourage employees to work for their own benefits Put the right person in the right position Set targets before meeting Target-driven	Unwilling to work beyond job responsibility	Inflexibility	✓
5	39 8 High level Non-Chinese MNC Education	Be patient to explain details Company has high ethical standards Familiar work environment Encourage employees to grow based on their own merits	Empowering Flexibility	Establish rules and responsibilities Fair and ensure transparency Have accountable performance Set targets before meeting Establish structural process and document	Public objection to authority Execution efficiency	Inflexibility	✓
6	49 2 Middle level Non-Chinese MNC Service	Friendliness Put oneself in one’s shoes Be modest Be patient to explain details	Be an observer	Establish platform for open discussion Fair and ensure transparency Stick to core values Professionalism in guidance	Hierarchy Relationalism	Inflexibility	✓
7	34 6 High level Chinese MNC Electronic	Be patient to explain details	Flexible to adjust organizational structures	Establish different incentive system	Execution efficiency	Inflexibility
8	40 14 High level Non-Chinese MNC Chemicals	Be a role model Encourage employees to grow based on their merits Manage expectations Self-improvement Learning orientation	Respect business and people for their true nature	Control meeting Fair and ensure transparency	Tend to avoid public conflicts (harmony) Less authority power		✓
9	47 9 High level Chinese MNC Biotechnology	Be a role model Put oneself in one’s shoes Self-evaluation Be patient to listen	Be an observer Respect business and people for their true nature Forbearance	Have accountable performance	Unwilling to work beyond job responsibility		✓
10	33 3 High level Chinese MNC Hospitality	Be a role model Familiar work environment Face-savor Put oneself in one’s shoes	No-action Coordinator	Establish platform for open discussion Have accountable performance Fair and ensure transparency	Unwilling to work beyond job responsibility		✓
11	33 2 Middle level Non-Chinese MNC Food	Be a role model Friendliness Be patient to listen Put oneself in one’s shoes	Coordinator Respect people for their true nature	Encourage employees to work for their own benefits Establish platform for open discussion Professionalism in guidance	Hierarchy Relationalism (Indirect communication) Execution efficiency		✓
12	32 3 High level Chinese MNC Telecommunications	Sympathy Developing employees Manage expectations A leader should take more responsibilities for failure Trust and respect	Empowering Respect business and people for their true nature Coordinator	Deliver on promises Encourage employees to work for their own benefits	Hierarchy Relationalism Unwilling to work beyond job responsibility		✓
13	40 2 High level Chinese MNC Education	Common goal and share the honor Manage different expectations Encourage people to grow based on their merits	Be an observer Coordinator	Encourage employees to work for their own benefits Agree on common principles Establish rules and responsibilities Professionalism in supervisor-member		Inflexibility	✓
14	30 6 Middle level Chinese MNC Telecommunications	Be a role model Put oneself in one’s shoes	Respect business and people for their true nature	Fire the unqualified person Stick to core principles Assertive		Inflexibility	✓
15	37 6 High level Chinese MNC Aviation	Be a role model Trust and respect subordinates	Be an observer Balance the headquarter and local	Establish rigorous rules and implement it Stick to core principles			✓
16	37 1 Lower level Non-Chinese MNC Consulting	Be patient to explain details Friendliness Common goal and share the honor Trust and respect Praise the ethics of hard work Take more responsibilities for failure	Respect business and people for their true nature	Encourage employees to work for their own benefits Establish rules and responsibilities Put the right person in the right position Have accountable performance			✓
17	28 2 Middle level Non-Chinese MNC Oil & Energy	Be a role model Common goal Praise the ethics of hard work	Empowering Flexibility	Establish platform for open discussion Put the right person in the right position Fair and ensure transparency			✓
18	29 2 Middle level Non-Chinese MNC Logistics		Coordinator Respect business and people for their true nature	Establish rigorous rules and implement it Set targets before meeting Establish and document structural process			✓
19	53 18 High level Entrepreneur Service	Be a role model Common goal Encourage employees to grow based on their own merits	Non-action	Encourage employees to work for their own benefits Establish structural process and document Put the right person in the right position Professional work environment			✓
20	54 25 High level Non-Chinese MNC Consulting	Be a role model Encourage employees to grow based on their own merits	Empowering Coordinator	Encourage employees to work for their own benefits Establish platform for open discussion Fair and ensure transparency Stick to core principles			✓
21	30 5 High level Chinese MNC Service	Sympathy Familial work environment Face-savor (harmony) Learning-orientation		Have accountable performance	Unwilling to work beyond job responsibility
22	37 1 Lower level Non-Chinese MNC Consulting	Trust and respect subordinates Company has high ethical standard		Fair and ensure transparency Stick to core principles	Public objection to authority
23	33 8 High level Entrepreneur Consulting	Be a role model Encourage employees to grow based on their merits Help to bypass difficulties Company has high ethical standards Familial environment Common goal	Balance dominance and modest		Public objection to authority Unwilling to work beyond job responsibility
24	35 4 High level Non-Chinese MNC Aviation	Be a role model Encourage people to grow based on their merits Learning orientation Self-improvement			Relationalism
25	36 2 Middle level Non-Chinese MNC Chemical	Sympathy Encourage employees to grow based on their merits Be patient to explain details		Deliver on promises Establish rules and responsibilities Target-driven Promote managers by their ability to develop people	Hierarchy
26	31 2 Middle level Non-Chinese MNC Trading	Be patient to explain details Help to bypass difficulties Common goal		Set targets before meeting Assertive and confidence	Public objection to authority Unwilling to work beyond job responsibility Relationalism
27	32 3 Middle level Non-Chinese MNC Consulting	Be a role model Praise the ethics of hard work		Encourage employees to work for their own benefits Professionalism in guidance Professionalism in super-member relationship Stick to core value Agree on common principles	Relationalism
28	29 3 Middle level Entrepreneur Consulting	Company has high ethical standard Encourage people to grow based on their merits Familiar environment		Fire the unqualified person Professionalism in supervisor-member relationship Assertiveness
29	32 3 High level Chinese MNC Biotechnology	Common goal and share the honor Friendliness Be patient to explain details Encourage employees to grow based on their merits		Target-driven Put the right person in the right position Professionalism in guidance
30	42 4 High level Non-Chinese MNC Consulting			Set targets before meeting Establish platform for open discussion

		Expatriates’ leadership practices reflecting the Chinese philosophies			Negative experience attributing to the difference of Dutch and Chinese culture (−)
	Leader age, overseas experience, firm type, managerial level, industry	Confucianism	Taoism	Legalism	Confucianism	Taoism	Positive to Dutch culture (+)
1	344Middle levelNon-Chinese MNCHealth Care	Be a role modelEncourage people to grow based on their meritsSympathyCompany has high ethical standardDeveloping subordinates (coaching)Manage different expectations	Be an observerDo less but drive others to perform	Control meeting directionTarget-drivenHave accountable performanceDeliver on promisesEncourage employees to work for their own benefitProfessional guidance	Public objection to authorityExecution efficiency	Inflexibility	✓
2	311Middle levelChinese MNCTelecommunications	Trust and respect subordinatesPut oneself in one’s shoes	ForbearanceContingency approach	Deliver on promisesEstablish rules and responsibilities	Unwilling to work beyond job responsibility	Inflexibility	✓
3	372High levelChinese MNCTelecommunications	Developing subordinates (coaching)Learning-orientationEncourage people to grow based on their meritsTrust and respect subordinates	Respect business and people for their true natureEmpoweringContingency approachBalance the headquarter and local	Have accountable performance	Unwilling to work beyond job responsibility	Inflexibility	✓
4	312Middle levelChinese MNCTelecommunications	Be a role modelEncourage employees to grow based on their meritsTrust and respectManage expectationsCommon goal and share the honor	Be an observerEmpoweringFlexibility	Encourage employees to work for their own benefitsPut the right person in the right positionSet targets before meetingTarget-driven	Unwilling to work beyond job responsibility	Inflexibility	✓
5	398High levelNon-Chinese MNCEducation	Be patient to explain detailsCompany has high ethical standardsFamiliar work environmentEncourage employees to grow based on their own merits	EmpoweringFlexibility	Establish rules and responsibilitiesFair and ensure transparencyHave accountable performanceSet targets before meetingEstablish structural process and document	Public objection to authorityExecution efficiency	Inflexibility	✓
6	492Middle level Non-Chinese MNCService	FriendlinessPut oneself in one’s shoesBe modestBe patient to explain details	Be an observer	Establish platform for open discussionFair and ensure transparencyStick to core valuesProfessionalism in guidance	HierarchyRelationalism	Inflexibility	✓
7	346High level Chinese MNCElectronic	Be patient to explain details	Flexible to adjust organizational structures	Establish different incentive system	Execution efficiency	Inflexibility
8	4014High level Non-Chinese MNCChemicals	Be a role modelEncourage employees to grow based on their meritsManage expectationsSelf-improvementLearning orientation	Respect business and people for their true nature	Control meetingFair and ensure transparency	Tend to avoid public conflicts (harmony)Less authority power		✓
9	479High levelChinese MNCBiotechnology	Be a role modelPut oneself in one’s shoesSelf-evaluationBe patient to listen	Be an observerRespect business and people for their true natureForbearance	Have accountable performance	Unwilling to work beyond job responsibility		✓
10	333High levelChinese MNCHospitality	Be a role modelFamiliar work environmentFace-savorPut oneself in one’s shoes	No-actionCoordinator	Establish platform for open discussionHave accountable performanceFair and ensure transparency	Unwilling to work beyond job responsibility		✓
11	332Middle levelNon-Chinese MNCFood	Be a role modelFriendlinessBe patient to listenPut oneself in one’s shoes	CoordinatorRespect people for their true nature	Encourage employees to work for their own benefitsEstablish platform for open discussionProfessionalism in guidance	HierarchyRelationalism (Indirect communication)Execution efficiency		✓
12	323High levelChinese MNCTelecommunications	SympathyDeveloping employeesManage expectationsA leader should take more responsibilities for failureTrust and respect	EmpoweringRespect business and people for their true natureCoordinator	Deliver on promisesEncourage employees to work for their own benefits	HierarchyRelationalismUnwilling to work beyond job responsibility		✓
13	402High levelChinese MNCEducation	Common goal and share the honorManage different expectationsEncourage people to grow based on their merits	Be an observerCoordinator	Encourage employees to work for their own benefitsAgree on common principlesEstablish rules and responsibilitiesProfessionalism in supervisor-member		Inflexibility	✓
14	306Middle levelChinese MNCTelecommunications	Be a role modelPut oneself in one’s shoes	Respect business and people for their true nature	Fire the unqualified personStick to core principlesAssertive		Inflexibility	✓
15	376High levelChinese MNCAviation	Be a role modelTrust and respect subordinates	Be an observerBalance the headquarter and local	Establish rigorous rules and implement itStick to core principles			✓
16	371Lower levelNon-Chinese MNCConsulting	Be patient to explain detailsFriendlinessCommon goal and share the honorTrust and respectPraise the ethics of hard workTake more responsibilities for failure	Respect business and people for their true nature	Encourage employees to work for their own benefitsEstablish rules and responsibilitiesPut the right person in the right positionHave accountable performance			✓
17	282Middle levelNon-Chinese MNCOil & Energy	Be a role modelCommon goalPraise the ethics of hard work	EmpoweringFlexibility	Establish platform for open discussionPut the right person in the right positionFair and ensure transparency			✓
18	292Middle levelNon-Chinese MNCLogistics		CoordinatorRespect business and people for their true nature	Establish rigorous rules and implement itSet targets before meetingEstablish and document structural process			✓
19	5318High levelEntrepreneurService	Be a role modelCommon goalEncourage employees to grow based on their own merits	Non-action	Encourage employees to work for their own benefitsEstablish structural process and documentPut the right person in the right positionProfessional work environment			✓
20	5425High levelNon-Chinese MNCConsulting	Be a role modelEncourage employees to grow based on their own merits	EmpoweringCoordinator	Encourage employees to work for their own benefitsEstablish platform for open discussionFair and ensure transparencyStick to core principles			✓
21	305High levelChinese MNCService	SympathyFamilial work environmentFace-savor (harmony)Learning-orientation		Have accountable performance	Unwilling to work beyond job responsibility
22	371Lower levelNon-Chinese MNCConsulting	Trust and respect subordinatesCompany has high ethical standard		Fair and ensure transparencyStick to core principles	Public objection to authority
23	338High levelEntrepreneurConsulting	Be a role modelEncourage employees to grow based on their meritsHelp to bypass difficultiesCompany has high ethical standardsFamilial environmentCommon goal	Balance dominance and modest		Public objection to authorityUnwilling to work beyond job responsibility
24	354High levelNon-Chinese MNCAviation	Be a role modelEncourage people to grow based on their meritsLearning orientationSelf-improvement			Relationalism
25	362Middle levelNon-Chinese MNCChemical	SympathyEncourage employees to grow based on their meritsBe patient to explain details		Deliver on promisesEstablish rules and responsibilitiesTarget-drivenPromote managers by their ability to develop people	Hierarchy
26	312Middle levelNon-Chinese MNCTrading	Be patient to explain detailsHelp to bypass difficultiesCommon goal		Set targets before meetingAssertive and confidence	Public objection to authorityUnwilling to work beyond job responsibilityRelationalism
27	323Middle levelNon-Chinese MNCConsulting	Be a role modelPraise the ethics of hard work		Encourage employees to work for their own benefitsProfessionalism in guidanceProfessionalism in super-member relationshipStick to core valueAgree on common principles	Relationalism
28	293Middle levelEntrepreneurConsulting	Company has high ethical standardEncourage people to grow based on their meritsFamiliar environment		Fire the unqualified personProfessionalism in supervisor-member relationshipAssertiveness
29	323High levelChinese MNCBiotechnology	Common goal and share the honorFriendlinessBe patient to explain detailsEncourage employees to grow based on their merits		Target-drivenPut the right person in the right positionProfessionalism in guidance
30	424High levelNon-Chinese MNCConsulting			Set targets before meetingEstablish platform for open discussion

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