Table 1 Wisdom in the KM, philosophy and...

Table 1

Wisdom in the KM, philosophy and psychology literature in a chronological order

Knowledge management
Authors	Wisdom defined as	Wisdom-related concepts
Boisot (1995, 1999)	–	Utility space is where value and wealth are created Social learning cycle Fundamental insight
Bierly et al. (2000)	Wisdom is using knowledge to establish and achieve goals through discerning judgements and taking appropriate action with the outcome of better living/success	Extend the data-information-knowledge framework with wisdom
Davenport and Prusak (2000)	–	Experts' insight Organizational routines Processes, practices and norms
Fuller (2002)	–	Power and knowledge Knowledge as justified true beliefs
Nonaka and Toyama (2002)	Practical wisdom (phronesis) as a creative capacity	–
Allee (2003)	Wisdom as a renewal level of knowledge complexity	Organization's character Identity, purpose and values – are the heart of a successful enterprise
Bennet and Porter (2003)	Growth of knowledge and sharing through heightened consciousness and connectedness lead to wisdom	Consciousness Connectedness
Skyrme (2003)	–	Insight Deep knowledge (behaviors, motivations, personal characteristics, ambitions and feelings)
Styhre (2003)	Wisdom is the next phase of knowledge	–
Becerra-Fernandez et al. (2004)	–	Experts' knowledge
Jashapara (2004)	Wisdom and truth have been shown to have higher qualities than knowledge Wisdom is the ability to act critically or practically in a given situation Wisdom is based on ethical judgement related to an individual's belief system	–
Pink (2006)	–	Wisdom workers Cognitive and emotional creativity
Jakubik (2007)	–	Five phases of KM theory development Focus on situation, process, action and change
Nonaka et al. (2008)	Phronesis is an intellectual virtue	Practical rationality to act Context, Processes and Interactions
Hislop (2009)	–	Practice-based approach to knowledge management
McKenna et al. (2009)	Wise leadership	Reason and observation Subjectivity in decision making Humane and virtuous Practical actions oriented towards everyday life Aesthetic dimension of the work Seek intrinsic personal and social rewards of contributing to the good life
Dobson (2010)	Wisdom economy	Ethical, social values Being reflective and purposeful Understanding of “enough” Demanding attitude and aptitude Collaborative and value community Self-esteem Graciousness Social responsibility
Jakubik (2011)	–	Engaging in knowledge creation with identity, purpose, values, beliefs, expectations and goals Becoming to know, Epistemology Interplay of learning (i.e. sensation and perception) and Knowing (conception and reflection)
Nonaka and Takeuchi (2011)	Practical wisdom, Phronetic leadership, Wise leaders	Judge goodness Grasp the essence Communicate the essence Create shared contexts Exercise political power Foster practical wisdom in others
Liew (2013)	Elements of wisdom: Mindful, knowledgeable, human affairs and virtue Intelligence connects knowledge with wisdom	Intelligence Understanding of universal truth Sound judgment Appropriate execution
Jennex and Bartczak (2013)	Wisdom is placing knowledge into a framework or nomological net that allows the knowledge to be applied to different and not necessarily intuitive situations	Intelligence Extending the DIKW pyramid with Big Data, Internet of Things (IoT), organizational learning, learning and intelligence
Serenko (2013)	–	Four generations of KM Since 2013 knowledge is seen as a relationship, a shift to the mind economy and intangible knowledge, and to networking organisations
Ekmekҫi et al. (2014)	Wisdom management (WM) Wise and unwise leadership	–
Nonaka et al. (2014)	Wisdom is a way of showing what is good, collectively, about an organization and its productive powers, and an understanding the higher moral purpose	Wise leader Acknowledge the limits and limitations of formal knowledge Cope with uncertainty
Jennex (2017)	Wisdom and knowledge lead to intelligence	Organizational learning Learning and intelligence Revising the knowledge pyramid: Big Data, Internet of Things (IoT)KM
Serenko and Bontis (2017)	–	New research topics in KM: cognitive, personnel and industrial and organizational psychology
Solé (2017)	Wisdom is the highest degree of knowledge Wisdom allows one to act wisely	KM evolves toward wisdom management (WM)
Bachmann et al. (2018)	Wisdom has the following features: action-oriented, integrative, normative, sociality-linked, pluralism-related, personality-related, cultural heritage and limitation-related	Features of practical wisdom
Bencsik et al. (2020)	–	Trust and distrust in knowledge-intensive organizations
Jakubik (2020a)	–	Intelligent work Intelligent workers
Jakubik (2020b)	–	Wisdom in education Cultivating wisdom in actions of future generations of managers Moral and ethical values in management education
Jakubik (2021a)	Practical wisdom	Management and leadership practices guided by practical wisdom
Jakubik (2021b)	Practical wisdom	Practical wisdom in higher education
Serenko (2021)	–	Five phases of evolution in KM/IC research (1996–2019)
Serenko and Bontis (2021)	–	Ethics and education as new research areas in KM
Vasconcelos (2021)	Wisdom capital (WC)	Individual wisdom capital (IWC): doing good, doing right, excellence, improve the society, serving others and him/herself Organizational wisdom capital (OWC): Greater good, common good, human good, well-being

Knowledge management
Authors	Wisdom defined as	Wisdom-related concepts
Boisot (1995, 1999)	–	Utility space is where value and wealth are created Social learning cycle Fundamental insight
Bierly et al. (2000)	Wisdom is using knowledge to establish and achieve goals through discerning judgements and taking appropriate action with the outcome of better living/success	Extend the data-information-knowledge framework with wisdom
Davenport and Prusak (2000)	–	Experts' insight Organizational routines Processes, practices and norms
Fuller (2002)	–	Power and knowledge Knowledge as justified true beliefs
Nonaka and Toyama (2002)	Practical wisdom (phronesis) as a creative capacity	–
Allee (2003)	Wisdom as a renewal level of knowledge complexity	Organization's character Identity, purpose and values – are the heart of a successful enterprise
Bennet and Porter (2003)	Growth of knowledge and sharing through heightened consciousness and connectedness lead to wisdom	Consciousness Connectedness
Skyrme (2003)	–	Insight Deep knowledge (behaviors, motivations, personal characteristics, ambitions and feelings)
Styhre (2003)	Wisdom is the next phase of knowledge	–
Becerra-Fernandez et al. (2004)	–	Experts' knowledge
Jashapara (2004)	Wisdom and truth have been shown to have higher qualities than knowledge Wisdom is the ability to act critically or practically in a given situation Wisdom is based on ethical judgement related to an individual's belief system	–
Pink (2006)	–	Wisdom workers Cognitive and emotional creativity
Jakubik (2007)	–	Five phases of KM theory development Focus on situation, process, action and change
Nonaka et al. (2008)	Phronesis is an intellectual virtue	Practical rationality to act Context, Processes and Interactions
Hislop (2009)	–	Practice-based approach to knowledge management
McKenna et al. (2009)	Wise leadership	Reason and observation Subjectivity in decision making Humane and virtuous Practical actions oriented towards everyday life Aesthetic dimension of the work Seek intrinsic personal and social rewards of contributing to the good life
Dobson (2010)	Wisdom economy	Ethical, social values Being reflective and purposeful Understanding of “enough” Demanding attitude and aptitude Collaborative and value community Self-esteem Graciousness Social responsibility
Jakubik (2011)	–	Engaging in knowledge creation with identity, purpose, values, beliefs, expectations and goals Becoming to know, Epistemology Interplay of learning (i.e. sensation and perception) and Knowing (conception and reflection)
Nonaka and Takeuchi (2011)	Practical wisdom, Phronetic leadership, Wise leaders	Judge goodness Grasp the essence Communicate the essence Create shared contexts Exercise political power Foster practical wisdom in others
Liew (2013)	Elements of wisdom: Mindful, knowledgeable, human affairs and virtue Intelligence connects knowledge with wisdom	Intelligence Understanding of universal truth Sound judgment Appropriate execution
Jennex and Bartczak (2013)	Wisdom is placing knowledge into a framework or nomological net that allows the knowledge to be applied to different and not necessarily intuitive situations	Intelligence Extending the DIKW pyramid with Big Data, Internet of Things (IoT), organizational learning, learning and intelligence
Serenko (2013)	–	Four generations of KM Since 2013 knowledge is seen as a relationship, a shift to the mind economy and intangible knowledge, and to networking organisations
Ekmekҫi et al. (2014)	Wisdom management (WM) Wise and unwise leadership	–
Nonaka et al. (2014)	Wisdom is a way of showing what is good, collectively, about an organization and its productive powers, and an understanding the higher moral purpose	Wise leader Acknowledge the limits and limitations of formal knowledge Cope with uncertainty
Jennex (2017)	Wisdom and knowledge lead to intelligence	Organizational learning Learning and intelligence Revising the knowledge pyramid: Big Data, Internet of Things (IoT)KM
Serenko and Bontis (2017)	–	New research topics in KM: cognitive, personnel and industrial and organizational psychology
Solé (2017)	Wisdom is the highest degree of knowledge Wisdom allows one to act wisely	KM evolves toward wisdom management (WM)
Bachmann et al. (2018)	Wisdom has the following features: action-oriented, integrative, normative, sociality-linked, pluralism-related, personality-related, cultural heritage and limitation-related	Features of practical wisdom
Bencsik et al. (2020)	–	Trust and distrust in knowledge-intensive organizations
Jakubik (2020a)	–	Intelligent work Intelligent workers
Jakubik (2020b)	–	Wisdom in education Cultivating wisdom in actions of future generations of managers Moral and ethical values in management education
Jakubik (2021a)	Practical wisdom	Management and leadership practices guided by practical wisdom
Jakubik (2021b)	Practical wisdom	Practical wisdom in higher education
Serenko (2021)	–	Five phases of evolution in KM/IC research (1996–2019)
Serenko and Bontis (2021)	–	Ethics and education as new research areas in KM
Vasconcelos (2021)	Wisdom capital (WC)	Individual wisdom capital (IWC): doing good, doing right, excellence, improve the society, serving others and him/herself Organizational wisdom capital (OWC): Greater good, common good, human good, well-being

Philosophy
Authors	Wisdom defined as	Wisdom-related concepts
Socrates (in Durant, 1954)	Virtue means knowledge Know yourself	Curiosity Debates Questioning
Plato (1953)	Virtue means wisdom, transforming chaos into creative harmony	Goodness Intelligence Education Power Wealth Wisdom is not for slaves it is for educated men (sic.), for the elite only
Aristotle (1962)	Virtues are formed by training and acting rightly, virtue is action tending to produce good, virtue is excellence	Judgment Self-control Symmetry of desires Excellence Training Power Wealth virtue is not for simple and uneducated men (sic.), not for slaves
Stoics: Epictetus, Seneca, Marcus Aurelius (in Russell, 1954)	Virtue is the only true good Virtue … rests entirely with the individual Virtue is due to the good influence of parents, grandparents and teachers	Law of equal rights Law of freedom of speech Brotherhood of man (sic.) Human race as one community Slaves are the equals of the other men (sic.), all human beings are equal
Seneca (1969) (first published c. 65 AD)	Without wisdom the mind is sick Wisdom is necessary for happiness The greatest good is virtue, virtue has to be learnt Wealth is not necessary for wisdom, have the essentials and what is enough	Learning, and studying Teaching Knowledge sharing Sharing moral values with the younger generation Soul Time
Kant (in Durant, 1954)	Wisdom is organized life	Stimulus Sensation Perception Conception Science Life
Müürsepp (2013a)	–	The aim of science – knowledge or wisdom
Müürsepp (2013b)	–	Wisdom economy
Stebbins (2017)	Wisdom needs heart, which involves empathy, compassion and loving and hunch, which calls upon intuition	Wisdom economy (WE) Wisdom management (WM) Knowledge economy (KE) Knowledge management (KM)
Maxwell (1984, 2021a and b)	Wisdom being the capacity, active endeavor and desire to realize what is of value in life for oneself and others Wisdom includes knowledge and technological know-how, but much else Wisdom connected to values and practice Wisdom has become, not a private luxury, but a public necessity	The aim of education should be wisdom not just acquiring knowledge In education, solving real life problems vs. solving science problems should be the priority Primacy of wisdom-inquiry Wiser world, good, civilized, enlightened a world Wiser ways of living
Müürsepp (2021)	–	Wisdom management

Philosophy
Authors	Wisdom defined as	Wisdom-related concepts
Socrates (in Durant, 1954)	Virtue means knowledge Know yourself	Curiosity Debates Questioning
Plato (1953)	Virtue means wisdom, transforming chaos into creative harmony	Goodness Intelligence Education Power Wealth Wisdom is not for slaves it is for educated men (sic.), for the elite only
Aristotle (1962)	Virtues are formed by training and acting rightly, virtue is action tending to produce good, virtue is excellence	Judgment Self-control Symmetry of desires Excellence Training Power Wealth virtue is not for simple and uneducated men (sic.), not for slaves
Stoics: Epictetus, Seneca, Marcus Aurelius (in Russell, 1954)	Virtue is the only true good Virtue … rests entirely with the individual Virtue is due to the good influence of parents, grandparents and teachers	Law of equal rights Law of freedom of speech Brotherhood of man (sic.) Human race as one community Slaves are the equals of the other men (sic.), all human beings are equal
Seneca (1969) (first published c. 65 AD)	Without wisdom the mind is sick Wisdom is necessary for happiness The greatest good is virtue, virtue has to be learnt Wealth is not necessary for wisdom, have the essentials and what is enough	Learning, and studying Teaching Knowledge sharing Sharing moral values with the younger generation Soul Time
Kant (in Durant, 1954)	Wisdom is organized life	Stimulus Sensation Perception Conception Science Life
Müürsepp (2013a)	–	The aim of science – knowledge or wisdom
Müürsepp (2013b)	–	Wisdom economy
Stebbins (2017)	Wisdom needs heart, which involves empathy, compassion and loving and hunch, which calls upon intuition	Wisdom economy (WE) Wisdom management (WM) Knowledge economy (KE) Knowledge management (KM)
Maxwell (1984, 2021a and b)	Wisdom being the capacity, active endeavor and desire to realize what is of value in life for oneself and others Wisdom includes knowledge and technological know-how, but much else Wisdom connected to values and practice Wisdom has become, not a private luxury, but a public necessity	The aim of education should be wisdom not just acquiring knowledge In education, solving real life problems vs. solving science problems should be the priority Primacy of wisdom-inquiry Wiser world, good, civilized, enlightened a world Wiser ways of living
Müürsepp (2021)	–	Wisdom management

Psychology
Authors	Wisdom defined as	Wisdom-related concepts
Erikson (1959)	Wisdom is gained through resolving daily crises	–
Sternberg (1990, 1998)	Wisdom builds on knowledge, cognitive skills and personality characteristics and it requires understanding of cultural context Wisdom involves forming a judgment when there are competing interests that lack resolution	Personality characteristics, skills, knowledge Cultural context
Ardelt (2000)	Intellectual knowledge vs. wisdom-related knowledge	Universal knowledge of wisdom Wisdom and aging Wisdom rather than intellectual knowledge is crucial for aging well
Baltes and Staudinger (2000)	Wisdom is the ways and means of planning, managing and understanding a good life Wisdom is an expertise in the conduct and meaning of life Fluid intelligence, creativity, openness to experience, psychological-mindedness and general life experiences “orchestrate” to produce wisdom	Six characteristics of wisdom Strategies and goals involving the conduct and meaning of life Limits of knowledge and uncertainties of the world Excellence of judgment and advice Knowledge with extraordinary scope, depth and balance Search for a perfect synergy of mind and character Balancing the good or well-being of oneself and that of others
Ardelt (2003)	Three-dimensional wisdom scale	Cognitive Reflective Affective dimensions of wisdom
Webster (2003)	Wise individuals	Factors influencing wisdom Dimensions and qualities of wisdom Characteristics of wise individuals Impacts of culture, practices, experiences and age on wisdom
Ardelt (2004)	There is no one general definition of wisdom Wisdom is an integration of cognitive, reflective and affective personality characteristics Wisdom cannot exist independently of individuals Wisdom should be reserved for wise persons rather than expert knowledge	Three personality dimensions of wisdom
Jeste et al. (2010)	Wisdom is uniquely human; a form of advanced cognitive and emotional development that is experience driven	Wisdom can be learned Wisdom increases with age Wisdom can be measured
Bangen et al. (2013)	Components of wisdom	Decision-making knowledge Prosocial attitudes Self-reflection Acknowledgement of uncertainty Emotional homeostasis Tolerance Openness Spirituality Sense of humour
Karami et al. (2020)	Wisdom is dynamic balance and synthesis translated into action Six components of wisdom (Polyhedron Model of Wisdom)	KM Altruism and moral maturity Sound judgment and decision making Intelligence and creative thinking Openness and tolerance Self-regulation
Karami and Parra-Martinez (2021)	Wisdom starts with realizing what we do not know, and reflecting on our foolishness	Foolish vs. wise person Wise person actively seeks for wide-range of knowledge, capable of applying that knowledge in different situations and contexts, and capable of addressing challenging problems
Sternberg and Karami (2021)	6P framework for wisdom	Purpose of wisdom Environmental/situational Press that produce wisdom Nature of Problems requiring wisdom Cognitive, metacognitive, affective and conative (motivational) aspects of Persons who are wise Psychological Processes underlying wisdom Products of wisdom

Psychology
Authors	Wisdom defined as	Wisdom-related concepts
Erikson (1959)	Wisdom is gained through resolving daily crises	–
Sternberg (1990, 1998)	Wisdom builds on knowledge, cognitive skills and personality characteristics and it requires understanding of cultural context Wisdom involves forming a judgment when there are competing interests that lack resolution	Personality characteristics, skills, knowledge Cultural context
Ardelt (2000)	Intellectual knowledge vs. wisdom-related knowledge	Universal knowledge of wisdom Wisdom and aging Wisdom rather than intellectual knowledge is crucial for aging well
Baltes and Staudinger (2000)	Wisdom is the ways and means of planning, managing and understanding a good life Wisdom is an expertise in the conduct and meaning of life Fluid intelligence, creativity, openness to experience, psychological-mindedness and general life experiences “orchestrate” to produce wisdom	Six characteristics of wisdom Strategies and goals involving the conduct and meaning of life Limits of knowledge and uncertainties of the world Excellence of judgment and advice Knowledge with extraordinary scope, depth and balance Search for a perfect synergy of mind and character Balancing the good or well-being of oneself and that of others
Ardelt (2003)	Three-dimensional wisdom scale	Cognitive Reflective Affective dimensions of wisdom
Webster (2003)	Wise individuals	Factors influencing wisdom Dimensions and qualities of wisdom Characteristics of wise individuals Impacts of culture, practices, experiences and age on wisdom
Ardelt (2004)	There is no one general definition of wisdom Wisdom is an integration of cognitive, reflective and affective personality characteristics Wisdom cannot exist independently of individuals Wisdom should be reserved for wise persons rather than expert knowledge	Three personality dimensions of wisdom
Jeste et al. (2010)	Wisdom is uniquely human; a form of advanced cognitive and emotional development that is experience driven	Wisdom can be learned Wisdom increases with age Wisdom can be measured
Bangen et al. (2013)	Components of wisdom	Decision-making knowledge Prosocial attitudes Self-reflection Acknowledgement of uncertainty Emotional homeostasis Tolerance Openness Spirituality Sense of humour
Karami et al. (2020)	Wisdom is dynamic balance and synthesis translated into action Six components of wisdom (Polyhedron Model of Wisdom)	KM Altruism and moral maturity Sound judgment and decision making Intelligence and creative thinking Openness and tolerance Self-regulation
Karami and Parra-Martinez (2021)	Wisdom starts with realizing what we do not know, and reflecting on our foolishness	Foolish vs. wise person Wise person actively seeks for wide-range of knowledge, capable of applying that knowledge in different situations and contexts, and capable of addressing challenging problems
Sternberg and Karami (2021)	6P framework for wisdom	Purpose of wisdom Environmental/situational Press that produce wisdom Nature of Problems requiring wisdom Cognitive, metacognitive, affective and conative (motivational) aspects of Persons who are wise Psychological Processes underlying wisdom Products of wisdom

Source(s): Jakubik

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