| Economy | GNI per capita decline | Low GNI per capita of rural women prevents them from education and development opportunities | Smit and Pilifosova (2001), Balabanova (2007); OECD (2013), Leonard (1998); Arekapudi and Almodóvar-Reteguis (2020); UN Human Rights (2012), Valodia (2009); Wan et al. (2016) |
| Unequal property rights | Lack of ownership rights to real property, farming land and other valuable assets eliminate women’s confidence, autonomy and decision-making power at home |
| Lack of income diversification | Income diversification helps rural women to enhance their resistance and resilience to climate hazards and stabilise family economic security |
| Rural unemployment | Unemployment rate of women |
| Economic dependency | Economic dependency reduces individual freedom and rights of a woman and excludes her from important resources needed for development |
| Financial illiteracy | Lack of competency in financial literacy leads women to face serious repercussions, such as credit card debt, miscalculation in investment or business and failure to manage income, taxes and investments |
| Informal economy | Proliferation of informal or illegal economic and financial activities in rural areas threatens to undermine women’s economic security and cause family fragmentation or violence against women |
| Tax burdens | Women’s income is usually lower than men’s. High taxation may reduce their financial ability in times of crisis (e.g. pandemic and climate hazards) or influence their economic welfare in the case of a divorce |
| Livelihoods | Cultivation recession | Risk is very likely to occur if the income of a woman is primarily dependent on cultivation (rice farming, orchards, floral crops, etc.) in the face of climate variability | Momtaz and Asaduzzaman (2020), Stuart et al. (2020); UN Population Fund (2009), FAO (2017) |
| Husbandry recession | Income primarily dependent on animal husbandry (pigs, poultry, etc.) is likely in danger of pandemic, climate hazards and economic shocks |
| Aquaculture recession | Climate hazards and human-induced environmental crises (e.g. water pollution) pose high-risk to income of women that is primarily dependent on aqua farming livelihoods |
| Wild-capture fishery recession | A woman primarily dependent on wild fish caught in either saltwater or freshwater (artisanal fishing) for her subsistence is highly vulnerable to climate extremes and environmental crises |
| Factory jobs recession | The major income of a woman or her family relies on low-cost, physical jobs in factories |
| Economic stagnancy | Higher-paying jobs in service sectors (tourism, trading, education, healthcare, etc.) stabilise women’s economic security |
| Infrastructure | Poor public infrastructure | Insufficient public infrastructure, including transportation system, constrains rural women to fulfil their basic needs, impedes economic development, access to education and health care and social inclusion | UN Women Watch (2022), Denton (2010); Indrawati (2015), OECD (2018); UN Human Rights (2012) |
| Poor digital infrastructure | Less developed communication and technological infrastructure enlarges development gaps between rural and urban societies, reducing development opportunities for rural women |
| Inadequate housing | Women and girls live in unsafe and poor conditions: limited access to safe water, energy, transportation and public services; lack of other facilities providing privacy. Poor housing conditions increase vulnerability of women and girls to sexual abuse, rape and harassment |
| Lack of emergency shelters | Limited free access to emergency shelters or temporary housing when facing family violence and abuse or disasters, threaten to place women at risk and could lead to refugee crisis |
| Energy insecurity | Limited access to power and lack of energy diversification increase vulnerability to power disruptions, narrow livelihood options and undermine women’s economic empowerment and advancement |