Boulding’s (1956, pp. 202-205) levels of complexity and associated assumptions, and/in addition to knowledge dimensions
| Level | Characteristics | Assumptions | Knowledge dimension |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Static structures | Linear causality, linearity, independence, objectivity, equilibrium, order, determinism, simplicity, reductionism | Stable knowledge based on defined general laws providing predictability and determinism |
| 2 | Clockworks – dynamic simple systems | ||
| 3 | Control mechanisms and cybernetic systems | Feedback, deliberate design and control, non-linearity, rationality | |
| 4 | Living organisms, cells, level of open systems | Self-organisation, co-evolution, emergence, interdependence, multi-causality | Observable phenomena, high level of scientific understanding and transferable knowledge between contexts, identified general laws which are semi-stable in, e.g. biology and medicine |
| 5 | Genetic-societal level – plants | ||
| 6 | Animals | ||
| 7 | Human beings | Subjectivity/inter-subjectivity, unorder, non-equilibrium, bounded rationality, indeterminism, complexity, pluralism | Knowledge is changeable over time and based on perceptions and sense making. Drive for innovations which creatively “destroy” existing knowledge |
| 8 | Social organisations and society | ||
| 9 | Transcendental | Based primarily on belief |
| Level | Characteristics | Assumptions | Knowledge dimension |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Static structures | Linear causality, linearity, independence, objectivity, equilibrium, order, determinism, simplicity, reductionism | Stable knowledge based on defined general laws providing predictability and determinism |
| 2 | Clockworks – dynamic simple systems | ||
| 3 | Control mechanisms and cybernetic systems | Feedback, deliberate design and control, non-linearity, rationality | |
| 4 | Living organisms, cells, level of open systems | Self-organisation, co-evolution, emergence, interdependence, multi-causality | Observable phenomena, high level of scientific understanding and transferable knowledge between contexts, identified general laws which are semi-stable in, e.g. biology and medicine |
| 5 | Genetic-societal level – plants | ||
| 6 | Animals | ||
| 7 | Human beings | Subjectivity/inter-subjectivity, unorder, non-equilibrium, bounded rationality, indeterminism, complexity, pluralism | Knowledge is changeable over time and based on perceptions and sense making. Drive for innovations which creatively “destroy” existing knowledge |
| 8 | Social organisations and society | ||
| 9 | Transcendental | Based primarily on belief |
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