Developed countriesDeveloping countries
ROAtESGESGESGESG
ROAt−10.383*** (0.142)0.438*** (0.138)0.485*** (0.157)0.464*** (0.155)0.258*** (0.071)0.244*** (0.067)0.411*** (0.105)0.333*** (0.114)
ESG−0.007 (0.012)0.007 (0.012)0.011 (0.026)0.005 (0.03)−0.057** (0.024)−0.001 (0.005)0.016 (0.012)−0.78*** (0.024)
SQESG0.0001 (0.0001)−0.0001 (0.0001)−0.0002 (0.0003)−0.00004 (0.0003)0.0005** (0.0002)0.00002 (0.00005)−0.0002 (0.0001)0.0008*** (0.000)
COV−0.36*** (0.122)−0.187*** (0.064)−0.463*** (0.158)−0.698** (0.311)−0.917*** (0.242)−0.717*** (0.075)−1.376*** (0.466)−0.116 (0.304)
ESG*COV0.006** (0.003)0.003* (0.001)0.009** (0.004)0.011* (0.006)0.009** (0.004)0.008*** (0.001)0.018** (0.007)−0.004 (0.006)
CONST−2.85* (1.504)−1.055 (2.139)−3.401* (2.03)−0.342 (3.502)0.154 (1.92)0.204 (1.166)−0.456 (4.705)−1.69 (2.748)
Control variablesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYes
Observations2,7682,7682,7682,768608608608608
AR1 (p-value)0.0000.0000.0000.0000.0000.0000.0000.000
AR2 (p-value)0.1330.2000.1360.1950.0600.0610.0650.124
Hansen test (p-value)0.2370.3270.4170.0800.4840.1660.1520.288

Note(s): ROA, pre-tax return on assets; ESG, the ESG variable being examined; SQESG, the squared value of ESG variables E, the environmental pillar score; S, the social pillar score; G, the governance pillar score; COV, dummy variable for the COVID-19 period of 2020–2021. Variables in italics and control variables are instrumented through the GMM procedure following Arellano and Bover (1995). Robust standard errors are in parentheses. *, **, and *** denote significance at the 10%, 5%, and 1% levels, respectively

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