Table 2 Types of healthcare waste,... | Emerald Publishing

Table 2

Types of healthcare waste, potential public health hazards and possible solutions

Types of waste	Public health hazard	Possible solutions	References
Hazardous waste	Groundwater contamination and increased vector-borne diseases can increase disease morbidity and mortality, impacting public health	Implementing systems and incentives enabling the transition to sustainable resource management, establishing waste collection services to protect public health, and improving waste treatment (landfills) to enhance environmental protection were recommended	Gutberlet and Uddin (2017), Elbeshbishy and Okoye (2019)
Hazardous waste (Toxic and infectious waste and radioactive waste)	These irritants may contribute to water pollution, fires (some hazardous waste are highly flammable), cancers, genetic mutations in humans and wildlife, physical deformations, organ system malfunctions, and congenital disabilities	The use of chemical (oxidation and reduction), thermal and biological (landfarming) as these methods change the molecular form of the waste material by using secure landfills, surface storage, and land disposal	Gutberlet and Uddin (2017), Elbeshbishy and Okoye (2019), Chew et al. (2023)
Pharmaceutical waste	Exposure to pharmaceutical waste can lead to disease or injury by poisoning and pollution by pharmaceutical products. Pharmaceutical waste may also have environmental impacts, such as contaminate drinking water through improper landfills and air pollution due to inadequate disposal	Possible solutions to reduce pharmaceutical waste include reducing the amount of waste include chemical treatment, non-engineered and engineered dump, encapsulation, inertization, sewer, burning, incineration. Pharmaceutical waste can also be returned to manufacturer for disposal	Bhayana et al. (2016), Bashaar et al. (2017), Rogowska and Zimmermann (2022), Oluwole et al. (2020)
COVID-19 related waste	Exposure to waste generated from COVID-19 pandemic can lead to infectious diseases. COVID-19 related waste may also have environmental impacts, such as contaminate drinking water through improper landfills and air pollution due to inadequate incineration	Disposal using chemical-based processes, low-heat thermal-based processes (frictional heat, microwave, autoclaves, incineration, and as a last resort, burning. Also, recycling (reduce, reuse, and recycle) where applicable	Das et al. (2021), WHO (2019), WHO (2022)
Healthcare industry E-waste	E-waste contains many harmful metals, flame retardants, and other persistent organic pollutants that can harm the environment and public health	Recycling (reduce, reuse, and recycle), landfilling, incineration	Seeberger et al. (2016), Krishnamoorthy et al. (2018)
Organic waste (Food waste, food-soiled paper products)	Organic waste contributes unpleasant odors to the environment that acts as a host to rodents and vectors that ultimately multiply and spread diseases. It contributes significantly to global warming as it decomposes and methane is produced	Composting and anaerobic digestion are cheaper and more straightforward processes to manage organic waste	Shams et al. (2021), Husaini et al. (2022)

Types of waste	Public health hazard	Possible solutions	References
Hazardous waste	Groundwater contamination and increased vector-borne diseases can increase disease morbidity and mortality, impacting public health	Implementing systems and incentives enabling the transition to sustainable resource management, establishing waste collection services to protect public health, and improving waste treatment (landfills) to enhance environmental protection were recommended	Gutberlet and Uddin (2017), Elbeshbishy and Okoye (2019)
Hazardous waste (Toxic and infectious waste and radioactive waste)	These irritants may contribute to water pollution, fires (some hazardous waste are highly flammable), cancers, genetic mutations in humans and wildlife, physical deformations, organ system malfunctions, and congenital disabilities	The use of chemical (oxidation and reduction), thermal and biological (landfarming) as these methods change the molecular form of the waste material by using secure landfills, surface storage, and land disposal	Gutberlet and Uddin (2017), Elbeshbishy and Okoye (2019), Chew et al. (2023)
Pharmaceutical waste	Exposure to pharmaceutical waste can lead to disease or injury by poisoning and pollution by pharmaceutical products. Pharmaceutical waste may also have environmental impacts, such as contaminate drinking water through improper landfills and air pollution due to inadequate disposal	Possible solutions to reduce pharmaceutical waste include reducing the amount of waste include chemical treatment, non-engineered and engineered dump, encapsulation, inertization, sewer, burning, incineration. Pharmaceutical waste can also be returned to manufacturer for disposal	Bhayana et al. (2016), Bashaar et al. (2017), Rogowska and Zimmermann (2022), Oluwole et al. (2020)
COVID-19 related waste	Exposure to waste generated from COVID-19 pandemic can lead to infectious diseases. COVID-19 related waste may also have environmental impacts, such as contaminate drinking water through improper landfills and air pollution due to inadequate incineration	Disposal using chemical-based processes, low-heat thermal-based processes (frictional heat, microwave, autoclaves, incineration, and as a last resort, burning. Also, recycling (reduce, reuse, and recycle) where applicable	Das et al. (2021), WHO (2019), WHO (2022)
Healthcare industry E-waste	E-waste contains many harmful metals, flame retardants, and other persistent organic pollutants that can harm the environment and public health	Recycling (reduce, reuse, and recycle), landfilling, incineration	Seeberger et al. (2016), Krishnamoorthy et al. (2018)
Organic waste (Food waste, food-soiled paper products)	Organic waste contributes unpleasant odors to the environment that acts as a host to rodents and vectors that ultimately multiply and spread diseases. It contributes significantly to global warming as it decomposes and methane is produced	Composting and anaerobic digestion are cheaper and more straightforward processes to manage organic waste	Shams et al. (2021), Husaini et al. (2022)

Source(s): Table by authors