Table 5

Threshold models of the relationship between poverty and informality (1) in Africa

Poverty headcount $1.90Poverty headcount $3.20Poverty gap $1.90Poverty gap $3.20
Lower RegimeLower RegimeLower RegimeLower Regime
Lag of Poverty−0.7083* (0.4280)−0.2842 (0.2633)−0.1254 (0.3248)−0.2361 (0.4619)
Income−0.0052 (0.0065)−0.0037*** (0.0012)−0.0065** (0.00271)0.0057 (0.0095)
Informality7.1476*** (1.8824)3.9502*** (1.2644)2.6133** (1.0219)4.8093** (1.9386)
Constant178.0958*** (66.0849)34.3558 (26.1138)58.1655* (31.7729)126.3303 (89.7982)
Upper RegimeUpper RegimeUpper RegimeUpper Regime
Lag of Poverty−0.2636 (0.5368)0.1758 (0.1895)−0.5205 (0.3645)−0.3418 (0.4883)
Income0.0030 (0.0149)−0.0021 (0.0034)0.0017 (0.0032)−0.0099 (0.0092)
Informality−4.4104** (1.8474)−1.3609** (0.6647)−1.5088* (0.8205)−3.1068 (2.5780)
Aggregate ModelAggregate ModelAggregate ModelAggregate Model
Lag of Poverty−0.3139** (0.1342)−0.1497*** (0.1497)−0.2123** (0.1051)−0.2442** (0.2088)
Income−0.00087 (0.0010)−0.0008 (0007)−0.0040*** (0.0007)−0.00004 (0.0009)
Informality5.6912*** (1.1877)0.5335 (0.4337)2.6617*** (0.4423)3.0236*** (0.6254)
Threshold Level (Stand E.)36.75*% (6.3343)24.32**% (11.0696)24.61% (17.7255)21.46**% (9.1687)
Threshold Bounds(33.13–57.96)(2.63–46.02)(10–59.35)(3.49–39.43)
Kink Slope−0.2494*** (0.0846)−0.3053*** (0.0837)0.4603*** (0.2720)−0.2176*** (0.0717)
Linearity Test0.0000***0.0000***0.0000***0.0000***
No of Countries20202020
No of Groups18191918
No of Instruments4545
Sargan (Prob.)11.2139 (0.4255)19.4200 (0.3670)8.5400 (0.4300)29.1300 (0.1520)
AR1 (Prob.)−3.7341 (0.0000)−4.4651 (0.0031)−3.8641 (0.0001)−2.9754 (0.0003)
AR2 (Prob.)−1.3240 (0.2302)−1.7563 (0.3248)−0.9455 (0.2984)−2.452 (0.1936)

Note(s): ***, ** and * indicates 1%, 5% and 10% respectively. The standard error is indicated in the parenthesis

In running the models, the variables of other measures of informality, institutional quality, Government expenditure, Inequality, Trade Openness, Corruption and inflation are used as instrumental, exogenous and control variables

Source(s): Authors (2023)

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