The impact of refugee inflows on the host countries’ entrepreneurship rates: two-step system GMM dynamic panel data estimations (dependent variable: TEA), 2000–2019
| Variables | Income level | Region | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All countries | Low and medium-low | Medium-high and high | Europe | Asia | America | Africa | |
| Model A1 | Model B1 | Model C1 | Model D1 | Model E1 | Model F1 | Model G1 | |
| Past TEA | |||||||
| Lag TEA | 0.558*** (0.070) | −0.251 (0.914) | 0.583*** (0.017) | 0.317*** (0.095) | −0.163 (1.084) | −0.230 (0.744) | 0.697*** (0.193) |
| Refugee inflows | |||||||
| Refugees per 1,000 population | −0.081*** (0.029) | −0.558 (0.399) | −0.069*** (0.009) | −0.118** (0.048) | −0.028 (4.352) | 0.635 (0.556) | −0.073*** (0.026) |
| Human capital | |||||||
| Years of schooling (active population) | −0.070 (0.178) | 1.474 (4.200) | −0.088 (0.068) | 0.077 (0.517) | – | 9.967 (8.032) | 0.720*** (0.233) |
| Demographics | |||||||
| Female share | 0.800** (0.403) | – | 0.624*** (0.115) | 3.026 (2.421) | −16.461 (14.693) | 15.724 (34.496) | – |
| Population aged 20–39 years old | 0.307 (0.235) | −0.486 (2.809) | 0.137* (0.081) | −0.913 (1.333) | −2.437 (11.134) | −5.709 (19.724) | – |
| Population aged 40–59 years old | −0.619** (0.247) | −0.367 (0.319) | −0.643*** (0.066) | −2.675 (2.398) | 8.919 (7.221) | – | −0.446*** (0.136) |
| Population growth | 0.082 (0.469) | – | 0.178 (0.168) | 0.021 (1.631) | −3.500 (3.422) | −26.165 (21.154) | – |
| Macroeconomic context | |||||||
| GDP per capita | 0.071 (0.079) | −0.260 (0.752) | 0.050* (0.027) | 0.104 (0.224) | – | −2.625 (4.046) | – |
| Unemployment rate | −0.074* (0.043) | 0.058 (0.144) | −0.081*** (0.016) | −0.051 (0.106) | 0.238 (0.821) | −1.036 (0.905) | – |
| Inflation rate | −0.406 (0.395) | −1.251* (1.630) | −0.155 (0.118) | 0.049 (0.646) | 12.367 (10.746) | 3.052 (5.844) | 0.491* (0.282) |
| Private credit available | 0.051 (0.055) | −0.326 (0.362) | 0.061*** (0.018) | 0.072* (0.042) | – | −0.535 (0.707) | −0.139 (0.144) |
| FDI inflows | 0.067 (0.160) | 4.496*** (1.290) | 0.077* (0.039) | 0.016 (0.067) | −1.334 (2.432) | −2.096 (5.510) | – |
| Institutional quality | |||||||
| Regulation quality | −0.128* (0.069) | −0.012 (0.311) | −0.120*** (0.014) | – | – | 1.451 (1.479) | – |
| Corruption control | −0.021 (0.127) | −1.145 (0.938) | −0.039 (0.028) | −0.068 (0.045) | −0.962 (3.372) | −0.739 (2.335) | −0.051 (0.081) |
| Time to contract | 0.026 (0.078) | −0.281 (0.647) | 0.055*** (0.018) | −0.017 (0.095) | 1.663 (3.506) | 3.627* (1.765) | −0.129* (0.071) |
| N | 634 | 46 | 588 | 350 | 85 | 151 | 54 |
| Diagnosis tests | |||||||
| Breusch–Pagan test | 6.620 (0.010) | 3.080 (0.079) | 2.950 (0.086) | 2.350 (0.125) | 7.090 (0.008) | 0.720 (0.398) | 790 (0.327) |
| VIF [max] | 2.76 [5.46] | 2.82 [4.03] | 2.48 [4.41] | 2.11 [3.89] | 3.12 [4.75] | 2.86 [4.96] | 2.84 [3.71] |
| Goodness of fit | |||||||
| AR(1) – p-value | 0.000 | 0.391 | 0.000 | 0.002 | 0.796 | 0.639 | 0.005 |
| AR(2) – p-value | 0.666 | 0.163 | 0.933 | 0.698 | 0.894 | 0.641 | 0.335 |
| Variables | Income level | Region | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All countries | Low and medium-low | Medium-high and high | Europe | Asia | America | Africa | |
| Model A1 | Model B1 | Model C1 | Model D1 | Model E1 | Model F1 | Model G1 | |
| Lag TEA | 0.558 | −0.251 (0.914) | 0.583 | 0.317 | −0.163 (1.084) | −0.230 (0.744) | 0.697 |
| Refugees per 1,000 population | −0.558 (0.399) | −0.028 (4.352) | 0.635 (0.556) | ||||
| Years of schooling (active population) | −0.070 (0.178) | 1.474 (4.200) | −0.088 (0.068) | 0.077 (0.517) | – | 9.967 (8.032) | 0.720 |
| Female share | 0.800 | – | 0.624 | 3.026 (2.421) | −16.461 (14.693) | 15.724 (34.496) | – |
| Population aged 20–39 years old | 0.307 (0.235) | −0.486 (2.809) | 0.137 | −0.913 (1.333) | −2.437 (11.134) | −5.709 (19.724) | – |
| Population aged 40–59 years old | −0.619 | −0.367 (0.319) | −0.643 | −2.675 (2.398) | 8.919 (7.221) | – | −0.446 |
| Population growth | 0.082 (0.469) | – | 0.178 (0.168) | 0.021 (1.631) | −3.500 (3.422) | −26.165 (21.154) | – |
| GDP per capita | 0.071 (0.079) | −0.260 (0.752) | 0.050 | 0.104 (0.224) | – | −2.625 (4.046) | – |
| Unemployment rate | −0.074 | 0.058 (0.144) | −0.081 | −0.051 (0.106) | 0.238 (0.821) | −1.036 (0.905) | – |
| Inflation rate | −0.406 (0.395) | −1.251 | −0.155 (0.118) | 0.049 (0.646) | 12.367 (10.746) | 3.052 (5.844) | 0.491 |
| Private credit available | 0.051 (0.055) | −0.326 (0.362) | 0.061 | 0.072 | – | −0.535 (0.707) | −0.139 (0.144) |
| FDI inflows | 0.067 (0.160) | 4.496 | 0.077 | 0.016 (0.067) | −1.334 (2.432) | −2.096 (5.510) | – |
| Regulation quality | −0.128 | −0.012 (0.311) | −0.120 | – | – | 1.451 (1.479) | – |
| Corruption control | −0.021 (0.127) | −1.145 (0.938) | −0.039 (0.028) | −0.068 (0.045) | −0.962 (3.372) | −0.739 (2.335) | −0.051 (0.081) |
| Time to contract | 0.026 (0.078) | −0.281 (0.647) | 0.055 | −0.017 (0.095) | 1.663 (3.506) | 3.627 | −0.129 |
| 634 | 46 | 588 | 350 | 85 | 151 | 54 | |
| Breusch–Pagan test | 6.620 (0.010) | 3.080 (0.079) | 2.950 (0.086) | 2.350 (0.125) | 7.090 (0.008) | 0.720 (0.398) | 790 (0.327) |
| VIF [max] | 2.76 [5.46] | 2.82 [4.03] | 2.48 [4.41] | 2.11 [3.89] | 3.12 [4.75] | 2.86 [4.96] | 2.84 [3.71] |
| AR(1) – | 0.000 | 0.391 | 0.000 | 0.002 | 0.796 | 0.639 | 0.005 |
| AR(2) – | 0.666 | 0.163 | 0.933 | 0.698 | 0.894 | 0.641 | 0.335 |
Notes:
***(**)[*] statistically significant at 1%(5%)[10%]. All variables are in logs. Robust standard errors. Grey cells value identify the statistically significant coefficients