Table 6. Impact of refugee inflows on...

Table 6.

Impact of refugee inflows on the host countries’ entrepreneurship rates: two-step system GMM dynamic panel data estimations (dependent variable: Self-employment), 2000–2019

Variables		Income level		Region
	All countries	Low and medium-low	Medium-high and high	Europe	Asia	America	Africa
	Model A2	Model B2	Model C2	Model D2	Model E2	Model F2	Model G2
Past self-employment
Lagged self-employment	0.993*** (0.017)	1.000*** (0.015)	0.986*** (0.003)	0.967*** (0.008)	0.641** (0.327)	0.099*** (0.020)	0.992*** (0.001)
Refugee inflows
Refugees per 1,000 population	0.001 (0.002)	−0.000 (0.002)	0.002* (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)	−0.058 (0.076)	−0.004 (0.004)	0.003*** (0.000)
Human capital
Years of schooling (active population)	0.001 (0.008)	0.002 (0.006)	0.008 (0.005)	0.005 (0.010)	−0.318 (0.303)	–	−0.005*** (0.001)
Demographics
Female share	0.038 (0.057)	−0.035 (0.025)	0.090*** (0.015)	−0.085*** (0.025)	0.376 (0.366)	−0.859** (0.396)	–
Population aged 20–39 years old	−0.014 (0.013)	−0.023 (0.018)	0.006 (0.010)	0.060*** (0.013)	−0.149 (0.505)	0.522** (0.230)	−0.053*** (0.008)
Population aged 40–59 years old	–	–	−0.019*** (0.006)	0.021 (0.015)	–	–	−0.030*** (0.002)
Population growth	−0.023 (0.027)	0.033 (0.036)	−0.037*** (0.013)	0.052*** (0.016)	0.025 (0.521)	0.398 (0.300)	−0.076*** (0.011)
Macroeconomic context
GDP per capita	−0.008 (0.011)	−0.004 (0.005)	−0.014*** (0.003)	–	–	0.007 (0.015)	–
Unemployment rate	0.002 (0.002)	0.003 (0.002)	−0.005 (0.002)	0.012*** (0.003)	−0.003 (0.009)	0.009 (0.007)	0.001 (0.001)
Inflation rate	0.004 (0.016)	0.015 (0.011)	−0.018 (0.011)	−0.014 (0.009)	−0.068 (0.126)	−0.079 (0.076)	0.067*** (0.013)
Private credit available	0.003 (0.004)	0.006** (0.003)	0.000 (0.002)	−0.011*** (0.002)	−0.039 (0.048)	−0.003 (0.007)	0.005*** (0.001)
FDI inflows	−0.002 (0.007)	0.006 (0.028)	−0.001 (0.002)	0.003** (0.001)	0.134 (0.215)	0.190** (0.093)	0.018*** (0.003)
Institutional quality
Regulation quality	−0.005 (0.005)	−0.002 (0.003)	0.000 (0.004)	0.010*** (0.003)	–	0.002 (0.005)	−0.000 (0.001)
Corruption control	0.006* (0.003)	0.003 (0.003)	0.001 (0.003)	–	−0.002 (0.024)	0.013 (0.013)	0.007*** (0.001)
Time to contract	0.002 (0.004)	0.005* (0.003)	0.002 (0.002)	0.007 ** (0.003)	0.140 (0.168)	0.018*** (0.006)	0.010*** (0.003)
N	1,730	538	1,190	738	298	346	346
Diagnosis tests
Breusch–Pagan test	10.090 (0.001)	65.670 (0.000)	0530 (0.466)	7.400 (0.007)	7.650 (0.006)	15.480 (0.000)	0.160 (0.692)
VIF [max]	2.28 [4.16]	1.91 [2.79]	2.30 [3.27]	1.78 [2.49]	2.37 [4.18]	1.84 [3.14]	2.47 [3.96]
Goodness of fit
AR(1) – p-value	0.000	0.001	0.000	0.000	0.215	0.002	0.005
AR(2) – p-value	0.155	0.163	0.136	0.194	0.397	0.234	0.770

Variables		Income level		Region
	All countries	Low and medium-low	Medium-high and high	Europe	Asia	America	Africa
	Model A2	Model B2	Model C2	Model D2	Model E2	Model F2	Model G2
Past self-employment
Lagged self-employment	0.993*** (0.017)	1.000*** (0.015)	0.986*** (0.003)	0.967*** (0.008)	0.641** (0.327)	0.099*** (0.020)	0.992*** (0.001)
Refugee inflows
Refugees per 1,000 population	0.001 (0.002)	−0.000 (0.002)	0.002* (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)	−0.058 (0.076)	−0.004 (0.004)	0.003*** (0.000)
Human capital
Years of schooling (active population)	0.001 (0.008)	0.002 (0.006)	0.008 (0.005)	0.005 (0.010)	−0.318 (0.303)	–	−0.005*** (0.001)
Demographics
Female share	0.038 (0.057)	−0.035 (0.025)	0.090*** (0.015)	−0.085*** (0.025)	0.376 (0.366)	−0.859** (0.396)	–
Population aged 20–39 years old	−0.014 (0.013)	−0.023 (0.018)	0.006 (0.010)	0.060*** (0.013)	−0.149 (0.505)	0.522** (0.230)	−0.053*** (0.008)
Population aged 40–59 years old	–	–	−0.019*** (0.006)	0.021 (0.015)	–	–	−0.030*** (0.002)
Population growth	−0.023 (0.027)	0.033 (0.036)	−0.037*** (0.013)	0.052*** (0.016)	0.025 (0.521)	0.398 (0.300)	−0.076*** (0.011)
Macroeconomic context
GDP per capita	−0.008 (0.011)	−0.004 (0.005)	−0.014*** (0.003)	–	–	0.007 (0.015)	–
Unemployment rate	0.002 (0.002)	0.003 (0.002)	−0.005 (0.002)	0.012*** (0.003)	−0.003 (0.009)	0.009 (0.007)	0.001 (0.001)
Inflation rate	0.004 (0.016)	0.015 (0.011)	−0.018 (0.011)	−0.014 (0.009)	−0.068 (0.126)	−0.079 (0.076)	0.067*** (0.013)
Private credit available	0.003 (0.004)	0.006** (0.003)	0.000 (0.002)	−0.011*** (0.002)	−0.039 (0.048)	−0.003 (0.007)	0.005*** (0.001)
FDI inflows	−0.002 (0.007)	0.006 (0.028)	−0.001 (0.002)	0.003** (0.001)	0.134 (0.215)	0.190** (0.093)	0.018*** (0.003)
Institutional quality
Regulation quality	−0.005 (0.005)	−0.002 (0.003)	0.000 (0.004)	0.010*** (0.003)	–	0.002 (0.005)	−0.000 (0.001)
Corruption control	0.006* (0.003)	0.003 (0.003)	0.001 (0.003)	–	−0.002 (0.024)	0.013 (0.013)	0.007*** (0.001)
Time to contract	0.002 (0.004)	0.005* (0.003)	0.002 (0.002)	0.007 ** (0.003)	0.140 (0.168)	0.018*** (0.006)	0.010*** (0.003)
N	1,730	538	1,190	738	298	346	346
Diagnosis tests
Breusch–Pagan test	10.090 (0.001)	65.670 (0.000)	0530 (0.466)	7.400 (0.007)	7.650 (0.006)	15.480 (0.000)	0.160 (0.692)
VIF [max]	2.28 [4.16]	1.91 [2.79]	2.30 [3.27]	1.78 [2.49]	2.37 [4.18]	1.84 [3.14]	2.47 [3.96]
Goodness of fit
AR(1) – p-value	0.000	0.001	0.000	0.000	0.215	0.002	0.005
AR(2) – p-value	0.155	0.163	0.136	0.194	0.397	0.234	0.770

Notes:

***(**)[*] statistically significant at 1%(5%)[10%]. All variables are in logs. Robust standard errors. Grey cells identify the statistically significant coefficients

Source: Own elaboration

[ViewLarge]