Table 1. Contrasting project management...

Table 1.

Contrasting project management approaches

Aspect	Hard project management approach	Soft project management approach
Key paradigm	A project is a process of activities and tasks that needs to be completed^a	A project is a strategic activity which contributes to a larger business objective^a
Project manager role	Delivering the project on time and within budget, as well as adhering to defined specifications^a	Delivering the project from a more holistic perspective, to create business results and value^a
Success criteria	Linked to operational/project success^a	Linked to strategic/organizational success, i.e. how outcomes of a project will influence the organization^a
Success criteria	Typically understood in terms of the “iron triangle,” i.e. project completion on time and within budget, performance^a and associated with quantitative criteria^c	Typically understood in terms of business success, impact on customer, impact on business, long-term results, value^a and associated with qualitative criteria^c
Targets	Targets are provided, by e.g. top management or client^b,d, are (preferably) clearly stated and typically predefined with a given set of resource constraints^c,d	Targets evolve, from a general vision and direction rather than from clear and specific objectives at project outset^b, i.e. objectives are ambiguous and difficult to define at initiation^c,d
Targets	Targets are associated with a tangible physical artefact^c	Targets are associated with abstract concept^c
Activities	Activities can be articulated, defined and planned^b, associated with narrow and clear task definition^e	Activities are partly emergent^b, associated with broad task definition^e
Activities	Associated with the refinement of one solution^c	Associated with the simultaneous pursuit of multiple solutions^c,d
Stakeholder involvement	Associated with expert practitioner, coordinating approach with limited or no stakeholder participation^c	Associated with a participative, collaborative and facilitative approach with high stakeholder involvement^c
Project changes	Changes are undesirable and should be limited^e Changes are associated with variation (plan deviations) and risks (stochastic, estimable changes in known project variables)^b	Changes are viewed as inevitable and should be facilitated^e Changes are associated with unforeseeable uncertainty, i.e. new variables, effects and actions, which could not be anticipated at the outset^b

Aspect	Hard project management approach	Soft project management approach
Key paradigm	A project is a process of activities and tasks that needs to be completed^a	A project is a strategic activity which contributes to a larger business objective^a
Project manager role	Delivering the project on time and within budget, as well as adhering to defined specifications^a	Delivering the project from a more holistic perspective, to create business results and value^a
Success criteria	Linked to operational/project success^a	Linked to strategic/organizational success, i.e. how outcomes of a project will influence the organization^a
Success criteria	Typically understood in terms of the “iron triangle,” i.e. project completion on time and within budget, performance^a and associated with quantitative criteria^c	Typically understood in terms of business success, impact on customer, impact on business, long-term results, value^a and associated with qualitative criteria^c
Targets	Targets are provided, by e.g. top management or client^b,d, are (preferably) clearly stated and typically predefined with a given set of resource constraints^c,d	Targets evolve, from a general vision and direction rather than from clear and specific objectives at project outset^b, i.e. objectives are ambiguous and difficult to define at initiation^c,d
Targets	Targets are associated with a tangible physical artefact^c	Targets are associated with abstract concept^c
Activities	Activities can be articulated, defined and planned^b, associated with narrow and clear task definition^e	Activities are partly emergent^b, associated with broad task definition^e
Activities	Associated with the refinement of one solution^c	Associated with the simultaneous pursuit of multiple solutions^c,d
Stakeholder involvement	Associated with expert practitioner, coordinating approach with limited or no stakeholder participation^c	Associated with a participative, collaborative and facilitative approach with high stakeholder involvement^c
Project changes	Changes are undesirable and should be limited^eChanges are associated with variation (plan deviations) and risks (stochastic, estimable changes in known project variables)^b	Changes are viewed as inevitable and should be facilitated^eChanges are associated with unforeseeable uncertainty, i.e. new variables, effects and actions, which could not be anticipated at the outset^b

Sources: Shenhar and Dvir, 2007^a; Lenfle and Loch, 2010^b; Crawford and Pollack, 2004^c; Davies and Brady, 2016^d; Koppenjan et al., 2011^e; Developed by author by adapting and compiling research proposing categories of project management approaches, acknowledging in particular the work by Shenhar and Dvir (2007), Lenfle and Loch (2010), Crawford and Pollack (2004), Davies and Brady (2016) and Koppenjan et al. (2011)

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