Panel asymmetric causality (Inf+ and pov−)
| Cross sections | Null hypothesis | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Inf+ does not cause pov− | Pov− does not cause inf+ | |||||||
| Wald stat | p-value | lag | Decision | Wald stat | p-value | lag | Decision | |
| Panel | 1.501 | 0.789 | 1 | Accept | 5.387** | 0.030 | 1 | Reject |
| Botswana | 5.290** | 0.028 | 1 | Reject | 2.951* | 0.095 | 1 | Reject |
| Burkina Faso | 0.727 | 0.400 | 1 | Accept | 1.459 | 0.235 | 1 | Accept |
| Cameroon | 2.773 | 0.105 | 1 | Accept | 7.272** | 0.011 | 1 | Reject |
| Congo, Rep. | 3.136* | 0.085 | 1 | Reject | 2.974* | 0.093 | 1 | Reject |
| Gabon | 1.254 | 0.270 | 1 | Accept | 4.021** | 0.053 | 1 | Reject |
| Kenya | 0.653 | 0.425 | 1 | Accept | 1.672 | 0.204 | 1 | Accept |
| Madagascar | 0.428 | 0.517 | 1 | Accept | 4.894** | 0.034 | 1 | Reject |
| Mauritania | 0.095 | 0.760 | 1 | Accept | 7.761*** | 0.009 | 1 | Reject |
| Nigeria | 0.409 | 0.527 | 1 | Accept | 0.466 | 0.499 | 1 | Accept |
| Senegal | 0.065 | 0.800 | 1 | Accept | 2.222 | 0.145 | 1 | Accept |
| South Africa | 2.735 | 0.107 | 1 | Accept | 0.761 | 0.389 | 1 | Accept |
| Togo | 0.444 | 0.510 | 1 | Accept | 28.185*** | 0.000 | 1 | Reject |
| Cross sections | Null hypothesis | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Inf+ does not cause pov− | Pov− does not cause inf+ | |||||||
| Wald stat | lag | Decision | Wald stat | lag | Decision | |||
| Botswana | 5.290** | 0.028 | 1 | Reject | 2.951* | 0.095 | 1 | Reject |
| Burkina Faso | 0.727 | 0.400 | 1 | Accept | 1.459 | 0.235 | 1 | Accept |
| Cameroon | 2.773 | 0.105 | 1 | Accept | 7.272** | 0.011 | 1 | Reject |
| Congo, Rep. | 3.136* | 0.085 | 1 | Reject | 2.974* | 0.093 | 1 | Reject |
| Gabon | 1.254 | 0.270 | 1 | Accept | 4.021** | 0.053 | 1 | Reject |
| Kenya | 0.653 | 0.425 | 1 | Accept | 1.672 | 0.204 | 1 | Accept |
| Madagascar | 0.428 | 0.517 | 1 | Accept | 4.894** | 0.034 | 1 | Reject |
| Mauritania | 0.095 | 0.760 | 1 | Accept | 7.761*** | 0.009 | 1 | Reject |
| Nigeria | 0.409 | 0.527 | 1 | Accept | 0.466 | 0.499 | 1 | Accept |
| Senegal | 0.065 | 0.800 | 1 | Accept | 2.222 | 0.145 | 1 | Accept |
| South Africa | 2.735 | 0.107 | 1 | Accept | 0.761 | 0.389 | 1 | Accept |
| Togo | 0.444 | 0.510 | 1 | Accept | 28.185*** | 0.000 | 1 | Reject |
Note(s): The symbols ***, ** and * represent 1%, 5 and 10% level of significance, respectively. Also, computation of p-values are based on 1,000 bootstrap replications. The lag length criteria is endogenously determined based on Bayesian information criteria (BIC)
Source(s): Authors' computations
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