TCCM framework map
| Authors | Theory | ||
|---|---|---|
| Context | Characteristics | Methodology |
| Hilken et al. (2021) | Mental imagery theory | ||
| USA | Café’s products | 296, 365 and 353 consumers | Online AR holograms on‐screen, online 360° VR video, tablet PC AR holograms, 360° video with VR HMD | Effectiveness of AR in stimulating purchase intention compared to VR. Effectiveness of VR in improving brand attitudes compared to AR. Combination of AR and VR in improving purchase intention and brand attitudes | Online and laboratory experiments |
| Kim et al. (2022) | Flow theory | ||
| USA | Apparel | 213 students | VR HMD, online store website | Role of VR store experience in eliciting shoppers’ interest in the store and intention to visit the physical store. Mediation effect of flow | Laboratory experiment |
| Luangrath et al. (2022) | ||
| Coffee, knitting, electronics, shirts, sweater, t-shirts, blankets | 502, 595, 967, 690, 622, 859, 144 consumers | Images, GIFs, Oculus Rift VR HMD, real products | Due to the active nature of product touch, the vicarious touch affects consumers’ psychological ownership and product valuation, that in turn results in body ownership of the virtual hand | Field study, online and laboratory experiments |
| Alzayat and Lee (2021) | Hedonic and utilitarian values | ||
| Tools, clothes | 48 students; 70 and 160 consumers | Oculus Rift HMD, online retail website | Hedonic and utilitarian shopping value in VR vs website. Mediating effect of telepresence on the relationship between VR and hedonic and utilitarian shopping values. Extension of the body and presentation of the body in VR vs website. Moderating effect of need for touch | Laboratory and online experiments |
| Bernritter et al. (2021) | Construal level theory | ||
| EU, UK | Fashion retail, food and beverage | 3,384 consumers; 120 and 296 students; 303 consumers | HTC Vive | The role of type of promotion, product category involvement and location targeting on consumers’ reactance and probability to buy in location-based mobile marketing. VR as an immersive environment to capture actual brand choices | Field quasi-experiment, laboratory and online experiments |
| Cowan et al. (2021) | ||
| France, Ireland, USA | Ruinart champagne, BMW car | 128, 160, 228, 185 consumers | 360° VR, picture, video, website video, real products | Effect of high presence-inducing media (360° VR) vs low presence-inducing media (video or product presentations) on brand evaluation and purchase intention. Differences among online vs retail-store experiences, and high vs low product category knowledge. Mediating effect of mental imagery on the interaction of product category knowledge and high vs low presence-inducing media on brand evaluations and purchase intention. Effect of haptic instruction on the influence of product category knowledge and media-induced presence on brand evaluations and purchase intentions | Field and online experiments |
| Harz et al. (2021) | Theory of vividness | ||
| Kitchen appliances, gardening tools. | 631 and 201 consumers | VR HDM and motion tracking sensors, online VR, real products | VR to improve prelaunch sales forecasting. VR vs traditional studio tests with real products. VR in fostering behavioural consistency between participants’ information search, preferences and buying behaviour. The effect of VR on participants’ perceptions related to presence and vividness and on decision uncertainty and convenience | Field studies, laboratory experiment |
| Huang et al. (2021) | ||
| China | Potato chips | 80 consumers | NVIS nVisor SX60 HMD, resting-state fMRI | Colour–flavour incongruency effect. VR setting as a research tool combined with fMRI and voxel-based morphometry study | Laboratory experiment |
| Kim et al. (2021) | TAM, Telepresence theory | ||
| US | Furniture | 146 students | Google Cardboard VR headset | Effect of interactivity and vividness on perceived usefulness and perceived enjoyment and impacts on consumer behavioural responses, mediating role of telepresence and previous experiences with VR | Laboratory experiment |
| Loureiro et al. (2021b) | Extended S(Stimuli) – O (Organism) – R (Response) framework | ||
| Portugal | Shoes | 200 students | Oculus Rift HMD | Escapism affects consumers’ cognitive and affective states that increase pleasure. Pleasure heightens vividness and presence, which affect intentions. The role of music in the background | Laboratory study |
| Mishra et al. (2021) | Theory of vividness, hedonic and utilitarian values | ||
| India | Chair, paint, tourism experience, car |128+159+138 students |VR headset | Consumer responses to VR, AR and mobile apps: ease of use, responsiveness, word-of-mouth recommendation, overall positive experiences, visual appeal, emotional appeal and purchase intention. Moderating effect of product type (hedonic and utilitarian) | Laboratory experiments |
| Park and Kim (2021) | ||
| USA | Apparel | 404 consumers, 196 students | 3D VR online store, try-on online store, standard online store, HTC Vive HMD, virtual try-on, static pictures | Effect of VR 3D virtual store and AR virtual try-on technology on purchase intention. Mediating role of cognitive elaboration. Interaction of consumers’ shopping goals (searching vs browsing) with the website technology and the influence on their responses | Online and experiments |
| Ringler et al. (2021) | Theory in sensory marketing, mental simulation and cue diagnosticity | ||
| US | Blender; sports utility vehicle; lawnmower | 427, 476, 270 students, 201 consumers | Vive Pro MV | The effect of consequential product sounds on customers’ perceptions and willingness to pay. Use of consequential product sounds in VR shopping | Laboratory and online experiments |
| Schnack et al. (2021a) | Big Five personality traits | ||
| New Zealand | Food and beverage, magazines | 113 consumers | HTC Vive HMD | Impact of Big Five personality traits on product inspection time, the proportion of private label purchases and impulsive buying in immersive VR store environments. Impact on basket size, shopping time and amount spent | Laboratory study |
| Schnack et al. (2021b) | ||
| New Zealand | Convenience products | 71 consumers | HTC Vive HMD, Electroencephalography | Different types of locomotion techniques in VR shopping environments (instant teleportation vs motion-tracked walking) and the influence on consumer behaviour | Laboratory experiment |
| van Berlo et al. (2021) | Consumer learning theory | ||
| The Netherlands | Chocolate | 81 consumers | HTC Vive HMD | The moderating effect of virtual product appeal of brands in VR on brand attitude and purchase intention. The mediating role of emotional response on the effect of brands in VR games on brand attitude and purchase intention | Laboratory experiment |
| Han et al. (2020) | Flow theory, TAM | ||
| Supermarket | 120 consumers | VR HMD | Effect of telepresence, challenge, body ownership and control (consumer flow) on playfulness and usefulness (technology acceptance). Intention to adopt VR in consumer setting. Role of technology readiness and time distortion on the relationship between telepresence and playfulness | Laboratory study |
| Kang et al. (2020) | Affective–cognition model | ||
| USA | Office desk, chair | 218 consumers | Picture, video desktop, website 3D, Oculus Rift CV1 HMD | Interactivity, visual-spatial cues and graphics quality in enhancing the playfulness and informativeness of the shopping interface and in influencing subsequent product evaluation and purchase intention | Online and laboratory experiment |
| Meißner et al. (2020) | Expectation–confirmation theory | ||
| Germany | Mueslis |257 students | VR HMD, 3D on desktop screen, real products | How high immersive VR affect variety-seeking (brand loyalty – taste loyalty), price-sensitivity and satisfaction with the choice made | Laboratory experiment |
| Naderi et al. (2020) | Model of object recognition | ||
| USA | Digital camera | 91, 90 students. | Ultra-HD TV, Oculus Rift CV1 HMD | The effect of product design and environment congruence on the perceived aesthetic, affective responses and purchase intentions. Immersive VR in reducing confounding effects and providing a better understanding of the product | Laboratory experiments |
| Pfeiffer et al. (2020) | ||
| Food and beverage | 29 students, 20 consumers | CAVE, eye-tracking, real products | Eye movements to classify goal-directed and exploratory search. Comparison between a virtual and real supermarket | Laboratory experiment, field study |
| Schnack et al. (2020) | ||
| New Zealand | Food and beverage | 153 consumers | HTC Vive HMD | Shopper behaviour in an immersive VR store: private label share, private label share per category, shelf positioning, gender differences in purchase behaviour, unplanned purchases, product handling time | Laboratory study |
| Huang and Wan (2019) | ||
| China | Potato chips | 80, 120 consumers | nVisor SX60 HMD | Colour–flavour incongruency effect in product evaluation and brand perception. Effect of the interaction with the product in VR on colour–flavour incongruency | Laboratory experiments |
| Lombart et al. (2019) | Cue utilization theory | ||
| France | Fruits and vegetables | 142 students | Oculus Rift DK2 HMD | The effects of fruit and vegetable abnormalities on consumer perceptions and purchasing behaviour in an immersive VR store. VR as an environment to study fresh food products with many participants | Laboratory experiment |
| Martínez-Navarro et al. (2019) | Affective–cognition model, Presence theory | ||
| Spain | Beer, water, wine | 178 consumers | Desktop screen, power-wall, HTC Vive HMD, physical market | The effectiveness of different VR formats and devices in eliciting positive consumer responses compared to a physical store: affective responses (emotions, discomfort, affective appraisal), cognitive responses (presence and band recall) and conative responses (purchase intention) | Laboratory and field experiment |
| Meißner et al. (2019) | ||
| Granola, banking mixture | 33 consumers | CAVE, eye-tracking | VR as an effective setting to benefit from mobile eye-tracking and laboratory experiment advantages | Laboratory study |
| Peukert et al. (2019) | Hedonic and utilitarian values | ||
| Germany | Mueslis | 257 consumers | HTC Vive HMD, desktop computer screen | The effect of immersion on the intention to reuse the shopping environment via two paths: perceived product diagnosticity - perceived usefulness and perceived telepresence - perceived enjoyment | Laboratory experiment |
| Esmark Jones et al. (2018) | Social identity theory, reactance theory | ||
| USA | Embarrassing products | 120, 99, 127 consumers, 44 students | 360° VR video with HMD, real products | Packaging components that influence product anonymity and the relationship between anonymity, embarrassment and purchase intentions. Moderating effect of location and discount. VR as an immersive environment to capture product choices | Field study, online and laboratory experiments |
| Ketelaar et al. (2018) | ||
| Denmark | Grocery | 120 consumers | CAVE | The effect of openness in advertising design, in interaction with location congruency of mobile advertising, in a VR supermarket (as a realistic, interactive and controllable environment | Laboratory experiment |
| Ketelaar et al. (2017) | ||
| Denmark | Cola, toilet paper, chocolate sprinkles, crisps | 120 consumers | CAVE | The effects of location congruency and medium type on consumers’ advertising attention and brand choice. VR as an immersive environment to capture actual brand choices | Laboratory experiment |
| Bigné et al. (2016) | ||
| Spain | Beer | 41 consumers | CAVE, human behaviour tracking, eye-tracking | Consumer paths, seeking behaviour, purchase behaviour, attention and time spent in a VR supermarket | Laboratory experiment |
| Characteristics | Methodology | |
|---|---|---|
| USA | Café’s products | 296, 365 and 353 consumers | Online AR holograms on‐screen, online 360° VR video, tablet PC AR holograms, 360° video with VR HMD | Effectiveness of AR in stimulating purchase intention compared to VR. Effectiveness of VR in improving brand attitudes compared to AR. Combination of AR and VR in improving purchase intention and brand attitudes | Online and laboratory experiments |
| USA | Apparel | 213 students | VR HMD, online store website | Role of VR store experience in eliciting shoppers’ interest in the store and intention to visit the physical store. Mediation effect of flow | Laboratory experiment |
| Coffee, knitting, electronics, shirts, sweater, t-shirts, blankets | 502, 595, 967, 690, 622, 859, 144 consumers | Images, GIFs, Oculus Rift VR HMD, real products | Due to the active nature of product touch, the vicarious touch affects consumers’ psychological ownership and product valuation, that in turn results in body ownership of the virtual hand | Field study, online and laboratory experiments |
| Tools, clothes | 48 students; 70 and 160 consumers | Oculus Rift HMD, online retail website | Hedonic and utilitarian shopping value in VR vs website. Mediating effect of telepresence on the relationship between VR and hedonic and utilitarian shopping values. Extension of the body and presentation of the body in VR vs website. Moderating effect of need for touch | Laboratory and online experiments |
| EU, UK | Fashion retail, food and beverage | 3,384 consumers; 120 and 296 students; 303 consumers | HTC Vive | The role of type of promotion, product category involvement and location targeting on consumers’ reactance and probability to buy in location-based mobile marketing. VR as an immersive environment to capture actual brand choices | Field quasi-experiment, laboratory and online experiments |
| France, Ireland, USA | Ruinart champagne, BMW car | 128, 160, 228, 185 consumers | 360° VR, picture, video, website video, real products | Effect of high presence-inducing media (360° VR) vs low presence-inducing media (video or product presentations) on brand evaluation and purchase intention. Differences among online vs retail-store experiences, and high vs low product category knowledge. Mediating effect of mental imagery on the interaction of product category knowledge and high vs low presence-inducing media on brand evaluations and purchase intention. Effect of haptic instruction on the influence of product category knowledge and media-induced presence on brand evaluations and purchase intentions | Field and online experiments |
| Kitchen appliances, gardening tools. | 631 and 201 consumers | VR HDM and motion tracking sensors, online VR, real products | VR to improve prelaunch sales forecasting. VR vs traditional studio tests with real products. VR in fostering behavioural consistency between participants’ information search, preferences and buying behaviour. The effect of VR on participants’ perceptions related to presence and vividness and on decision uncertainty and convenience | Field studies, laboratory experiment |
| China | Potato chips | 80 consumers | NVIS nVisor SX60 HMD, resting-state fMRI | Colour–flavour incongruency effect. VR setting as a research tool combined with fMRI and voxel-based morphometry study | Laboratory experiment |
| US | Furniture | 146 students | Google Cardboard VR headset | Effect of interactivity and vividness on perceived usefulness and perceived enjoyment and impacts on consumer behavioural responses, mediating role of telepresence and previous experiences with VR | Laboratory experiment |
| Portugal | Shoes | 200 students | Oculus Rift HMD | Escapism affects consumers’ cognitive and affective states that increase pleasure. Pleasure heightens vividness and presence, which affect intentions. The role of music in the background | Laboratory study |
| India | Chair, paint, tourism experience, car | Consumer responses to VR, AR and mobile apps: ease of use, responsiveness, word-of-mouth recommendation, overall positive experiences, visual appeal, emotional appeal and purchase intention. Moderating effect of product type (hedonic and utilitarian) | Laboratory experiments |
| USA | Apparel | 404 consumers, 196 students | 3D VR online store, try-on online store, standard online store, HTC Vive HMD, virtual try-on, static pictures | Effect of VR 3D virtual store and AR virtual try-on technology on purchase intention. Mediating role of cognitive elaboration. Interaction of consumers’ shopping goals (searching vs browsing) with the website technology and the influence on their responses | Online and experiments |
| US | Blender; sports utility vehicle; lawnmower | 427, 476, 270 students, 201 consumers | Vive Pro MV | The effect of consequential product sounds on customers’ perceptions and willingness to pay. Use of consequential product sounds in VR shopping | Laboratory and online experiments |
| New Zealand | Food and beverage, magazines | 113 consumers | HTC Vive HMD | Impact of Big Five personality traits on product inspection time, the proportion of private label purchases and impulsive buying in immersive VR store environments. Impact on basket size, shopping time and amount spent | Laboratory study |
| New Zealand | Convenience products | 71 consumers | HTC Vive HMD, Electroencephalography | Different types of locomotion techniques in VR shopping environments (instant teleportation vs motion-tracked walking) and the influence on consumer behaviour | Laboratory experiment |
| The Netherlands | Chocolate | 81 consumers | HTC Vive HMD | The moderating effect of virtual product appeal of brands in VR on brand attitude and purchase intention. The mediating role of emotional response on the effect of brands in VR games on brand attitude and purchase intention | Laboratory experiment |
| Supermarket | 120 consumers | | Effect of telepresence, challenge, body ownership and control (consumer flow) on playfulness and usefulness (technology acceptance). Intention to adopt VR in consumer setting. Role of technology readiness and time distortion on the relationship between telepresence and playfulness | Laboratory study |
| USA | Office desk, chair | 218 consumers | Picture, video desktop, website 3D, Oculus Rift CV1 HMD | Interactivity, visual-spatial cues and graphics quality in enhancing the playfulness and informativeness of the shopping interface and in influencing subsequent product evaluation and purchase intention | Online and laboratory experiment |
| Germany | Mueslis |257 students | VR HMD, 3D on desktop screen, real products | How high immersive VR affect variety-seeking (brand loyalty – taste loyalty), price-sensitivity and satisfaction with the choice made | Laboratory experiment |
| USA | Digital camera | 91, 90 students. | Ultra-HD TV, Oculus Rift CV1 HMD | The effect of product design and environment congruence on the perceived aesthetic, affective responses and purchase intentions. Immersive VR in reducing confounding effects and providing a better understanding of the product | Laboratory experiments |
| Food and beverage | 29 students, 20 consumers | CAVE, eye-tracking, real products | Eye movements to classify goal-directed and exploratory search. Comparison between a virtual and real supermarket | Laboratory experiment, field study |
| New Zealand | Food and beverage | 153 consumers | HTC Vive HMD | Shopper behaviour in an immersive VR store: private label share, private label share per category, shelf positioning, gender differences in purchase behaviour, unplanned purchases, product handling time | Laboratory study |
| China | Potato chips | 80, 120 consumers | nVisor SX60 HMD | Colour–flavour incongruency effect in product evaluation and brand perception. Effect of the interaction with the product in VR on colour–flavour incongruency | Laboratory experiments |
| France | Fruits and vegetables | 142 students | Oculus Rift DK2 HMD | The effects of fruit and vegetable abnormalities on consumer perceptions and purchasing behaviour in an immersive VR store. VR as an environment to study fresh food products with many participants | Laboratory experiment |
| Spain | Beer, water, wine | 178 consumers | Desktop screen, power-wall, HTC Vive HMD, physical market | The effectiveness of different VR formats and devices in eliciting positive consumer responses compared to a physical store: affective responses (emotions, discomfort, affective appraisal), cognitive responses (presence and band recall) and conative responses (purchase intention) | Laboratory and field experiment |
| Granola, banking mixture | 33 consumers | CAVE, eye-tracking | VR as an effective setting to benefit from mobile eye-tracking and laboratory experiment advantages | Laboratory study |
| Germany | Mueslis | 257 consumers | HTC Vive HMD, desktop computer screen | The effect of immersion on the intention to reuse the shopping environment via two paths: perceived product diagnosticity - perceived usefulness and perceived telepresence - perceived enjoyment | Laboratory experiment |
| USA | Embarrassing products | 120, 99, 127 consumers, 44 students | 360° VR video with HMD, real products | Packaging components that influence product anonymity and the relationship between anonymity, embarrassment and purchase intentions. Moderating effect of location and discount. VR as an immersive environment to capture product choices | Field study, online and laboratory experiments |
| Denmark | Grocery | 120 consumers | CAVE | The effect of openness in advertising design, in interaction with location congruency of mobile advertising, in a VR supermarket (as a realistic, interactive and controllable environment | Laboratory experiment |
| Denmark | Cola, toilet paper, chocolate sprinkles, crisps | 120 consumers | CAVE | The effects of location congruency and medium type on consumers’ advertising attention and brand choice. VR as an immersive environment to capture actual brand choices | Laboratory experiment |
| Spain | Beer | 41 consumers | CAVE, human behaviour tracking, eye-tracking | Consumer paths, seeking behaviour, purchase behaviour, attention and time spent in a VR supermarket | Laboratory experiment |
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