Cluster frequencies (%) by gender, country, and pension regulation, with chi-square tests
| Men | Women | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Entrepre-neur to 60 | Entrepre-neur to 65 | Entrepreneur and employee | Entrepre-neur to 60 | Entrepre-neur to 65 | Entrepreneur and employee | |
| No gender-difference in retirement age, mandatory coverage | ||||||
| Cyprus | 40.9 | 53.0 | 6.1 | 37.0 | 51.9 | 11.1 |
| Luxembourg | 44.0 | 52.0 | 4.0 | 52.2 | 39.1 | 8.7 |
| Hungary | 77.4 | 19.4 | 3.2 | 78.6 | 21.4 | 0.0 |
| Belgium | 44.4 | 39.6 | 16.0 | 61.9 | 36.4 | 1.7 |
| France | 71.2 | 21.9 | 6.9 | 63.0 | 29.6 | 7.4 |
| Portugal | 33.3 | 54.8 | 11.9 | 27.5 | 65.0 | 7.5 |
| Sweden | 21.2 | 47.7 | 31.1 | 17.5 | 51.2 | 31.3 |
| Latvia | 0.0 | 100.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 100.0 |
| Finland | 42.4 | 47.0 | 10.6 | 37.8 | 54.1 | 8.1 |
| Slovakia | 71.4 | 28.6 | 0.0 | 100.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
| Ireland | 23.7 | 65.8 | 10.5 | 20.0 | 60.0 | 20.0 |
| Netherlands | 39.4 | 51.5 | 9.1 | 52.8 | 41.6 | 5.6 |
| Spain | 30.1 | 60.7 | 9.2 | 35.8 | 59.4 | 4.8 |
| Average*** | 40.8 | 45.8 | 13.3 | 45.5 | 45.7 | 8.8 |
| No gender-difference in retirement age, no mandatory coverage | ||||||
| Denmark | 28.8 | 45.4 | 25.8 | 38.4 | 39.4 | 22.2 |
| Germany | 26.7 | 48.9 | 24.4 | 27.4 | 52.6 | 20.0 |
| Average | 27.8 | 47.1 | 25.1 | 33.0 | 45.9 | 21.1 |
| Gender-difference in retirement age, mandatory coverage | ||||||
| Austria | 62.2 | 28.0 | 9.8 | 70.6 | 22.9 | 6.5 |
| Bulgaria | 40.0 | 50.0 | 10.0 | 50.0 | 37.5 | 12.5 |
| Croatia | 62.5 | 28.1 | 9.4 | 78.6 | 21.4 | 0.0 |
| Czech Republic | 47.8 | 18.8 | 33.4 | 51.0 | 24.5 | 24.5 |
| Estonia | 38.5 | 30.8 | 30.7 | 33.3 | 28.2 | 38.5 |
| Greece | 40.1 | 57.3 | 2.6 | 29.1 | 70.9 | 0.0 |
| Israel | 16.3 | 58.2 | 25.5 | 39.0 | 51.2 | 9.8 |
| Italy | 52.8 | 40.2 | 7.0 | 62.9 | 31.8 | 5.3 |
| Lithuania | 30.0 | 30.0 | 40.0 | 50.0 | 50.0 | 0.0 |
| Malta | 57.5 | 27.5 | 15.0 | 50.0 | 50.0 | 0.0 |
| Poland | 66.2 | 28.4 | 5.4 | 73.3 | 25.1 | 1.6 |
| Romania | 57.1 | 28.6 | 14.3 | 66.7 | 33.3 | 0.0 |
| Slovenia | 83.6 | 11.5 | 4.9 | 88.2 | 11.8 | 0.0 |
| Switzerland | 17.4 | 55.1 | 27.5 | 23.1 | 61.2 | 15.7 |
| Average*** | 46.5 | 41.2 | 12.3 | 54.5 | 37.7 | 7.8 |
| Total*** | 41.9 | 43.8 | 14.3 | 48.7 | 41.7 | 9.6 |
| Men | Women | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Entrepre-neur to 60 | Entrepre-neur to 65 | Entrepreneur and employee | Entrepre-neur to 60 | Entrepre-neur to 65 | Entrepreneur and employee | |
| Cyprus | 40.9 | 53.0 | 6.1 | 37.0 | 51.9 | 11.1 |
| Luxembourg | 44.0 | 52.0 | 4.0 | 52.2 | 39.1 | 8.7 |
| Hungary | 77.4 | 19.4 | 3.2 | 78.6 | 21.4 | 0.0 |
| Belgium | 44.4 | 39.6 | 16.0 | 61.9 | 36.4 | 1.7 |
| France | 71.2 | 21.9 | 6.9 | 63.0 | 29.6 | 7.4 |
| Portugal | 33.3 | 54.8 | 11.9 | 27.5 | 65.0 | 7.5 |
| Sweden | 21.2 | 47.7 | 31.1 | 17.5 | 51.2 | 31.3 |
| Latvia | 0.0 | 100.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 100.0 |
| Finland | 42.4 | 47.0 | 10.6 | 37.8 | 54.1 | 8.1 |
| Slovakia | 71.4 | 28.6 | 0.0 | 100.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
| Ireland | 23.7 | 65.8 | 10.5 | 20.0 | 60.0 | 20.0 |
| Netherlands | 39.4 | 51.5 | 9.1 | 52.8 | 41.6 | 5.6 |
| Spain | 30.1 | 60.7 | 9.2 | 35.8 | 59.4 | 4.8 |
| Denmark | 28.8 | 45.4 | 25.8 | 38.4 | 39.4 | 22.2 |
| Germany | 26.7 | 48.9 | 24.4 | 27.4 | 52.6 | 20.0 |
| Austria | 62.2 | 28.0 | 9.8 | 70.6 | 22.9 | 6.5 |
| Bulgaria | 40.0 | 50.0 | 10.0 | 50.0 | 37.5 | 12.5 |
| Croatia | 62.5 | 28.1 | 9.4 | 78.6 | 21.4 | 0.0 |
| Czech Republic | 47.8 | 18.8 | 33.4 | 51.0 | 24.5 | 24.5 |
| Estonia | 38.5 | 30.8 | 30.7 | 33.3 | 28.2 | 38.5 |
| Greece | 40.1 | 57.3 | 2.6 | 29.1 | 70.9 | 0.0 |
| Israel | 16.3 | 58.2 | 25.5 | 39.0 | 51.2 | 9.8 |
| Italy | 52.8 | 40.2 | 7.0 | 62.9 | 31.8 | 5.3 |
| Lithuania | 30.0 | 30.0 | 40.0 | 50.0 | 50.0 | 0.0 |
| Malta | 57.5 | 27.5 | 15.0 | 50.0 | 50.0 | 0.0 |
| Poland | 66.2 | 28.4 | 5.4 | 73.3 | 25.1 | 1.6 |
| Romania | 57.1 | 28.6 | 14.3 | 66.7 | 33.3 | 0.0 |
| Slovenia | 83.6 | 11.5 | 4.9 | 88.2 | 11.8 | 0.0 |
| Switzerland | 17.4 | 55.1 | 27.5 | 23.1 | 61.2 | 15.7 |
Note(s): *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001
Source(s): Author’s own work
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